Showing posts with label The Fronde. Show all posts
Showing posts with label The Fronde. Show all posts

Friday, December 5, 2025

Ida Ashworth Taylor on "Christina mediates in France; the Prince de Condé; condition of Sweden and popular discontent; project of abdication first takes shape; Christina consents to abandon it; letters on religion" (1649-51)

Sources:

Christina of Sweden, pages 53 to 63, by Ida Ashworth Taylor, 1909; original at the University of Toronto


Drottning Kristina: bemyndigade öfversättning af H. Flygare, pages 54 to 64, by Ida Ashworth Taylor, translated by Hanny Flygare, 1912; original at the University of Minnesota


Kristina's letter to the Prince de Condé (written in 1646) is here:


His reply letter to her is here:


Her letter of March 2/12 (New Style), 1651 to him is here:


Kristina's letter of October 18/28 (New Style), 1651 to Antoine Godeau, Bishop of Grasse, is here:


Kristina's letter of March 10/20 (Old Style), 1652 to her cousin the Landgrave Friedrich of Hesse-Darmstadt is here:


The account:

IF the affairs of Sweden were for the present in a condition of tranquillity, her old ally, France, was torn by internal dissension; and Christina, whose interests were never bounded by limits of geography and nationality, was following the course of events with eagerness, and attempting, with the rash optimism of youth, to bring about the re-establishment of peaceful relations between the young King Louis and his rebellious subjects. That the leader of those rebellious subjects had been already singled out by her for admiration was an additional incentive to exertion. To her at this time the unseen Condé — the rather, judging by the future, because unseen — was the hero of the age. When dispatching de la Gardie to Paris she had entrusted him with a letter to be delivered on the way to the man who, as Duc d'Enghien, had just avenged, in the second battle of Nordlingen, the Swedish defeat on that same battle-field. Young, and in the first brilliancy of his military career, he was a champion well calculated to appeal to Christina's imagination, and, adopting him as her hero, she sent him an autograph letter of congratulation.

"I assure you", she wrote, "that my own successes have never touched me more deeply than your victories. If you had done no more than avenge with so much valour the manes of my soldiers at Nordlingen, it would necessarily give rise in me to special appreciation of your glory. I shall hope, Monsieur, that your great exploits in Germany may continue; and my interests cause me to desire that you may cross the Rhine once more, thereby to complete the disheartening of our enemies."

Enghien was not to be outdone in courtesy, and in his reply he paid a just tribute to the great soldier who had preceded him. Christina's generosity, he said, turned commonplace actions into famous victories[,] and the price attached to them by her alone gave them their value. The conquests of her father had made him hope for more famous successes. But Gustavus having been born to be matchless, it was not astonishing that what he had achieved could not be repeated. "I am content to have avenged at Nordlingen an insult offered by fortune after his death to his arms which she would not have ventured to offer him living. I confess, Madame, that in repairing it, I fought in the interests of his glory and of yours, so that your enemies, so often vanquished by him, should not be able to boast of a conquest over you."

Times were now changed; the hero was discredited at home; and though Louis, representing sovereignty outraged and defied, might appeal to the Queen, the sympathies of the woman were enlisted on the side of the man whom she regarded in some sort as her personal champion.

Nor had Condé been backward in claiming her support. From his prison at Vincennes he wrote to beg her to expostulate with the Queen Regent and Mazarin on the misuse of their authority. The appeal chimed in well with Christina's inclinations. To intervene as mediatrix in the affairs of one of the great Powers of Europe was a duty commending itself strongly to her love of importance and to the estimate of her personal power and influence indicated by her words at a later date, when she wrote that "since her majority she had rendered herself the absolute arbiter not only of her own kingdom, but of all Europe, whose destinies appeared to depend upon her will alone." Wearying, in her corner of the world, of the routine of kingship; perhaps secretly conscious, in spite of the place her father had won for Sweden among the nations, of a certain provincialism in her surroundings, she longed to make her influence felt in a wider sphere, and lost no time in responding to Condé's appeal. The number of letters addressed by her, at different stages of the struggle, to its various participants, testify to her zeal and activity. The Queen-mother, the young King Philip of Spain, the Parlement of Paris, Cardinal de Retz, the duc d'Orléans, the duc de Longueville, Mademoiselle de Montpensier and Condé himself, were all in turn recipients of missives urging the duty of composing their differences and restoring peace to their distracted country.

No doubt France would have been the gainer had they acted upon her counsels. But Christina could not have expected that a foreign sovereign would be permitted to play the part she was so anxious to perform; nor were her admonitions such as to be viewed with approval by the authorities. To Orléans she explicitly expressed her sympathy with that desire of effecting the removal of Mazarin which had been a chief motive of the quarrel; adding — for once conscious of a merit in Protestantism — that if her religion had no other advantage than securing exemption from the ambition and unruliness of churchmen, it was a consolation to see nations left in tranquillity without cardinals or bishops. To Condé — in her eyes the central figure of the drama, a hero in disgrace, rewarded by ingratitude for his splendid services — she wrote in terms displaying her skill in the use of flattery. "I will hope", she said, congratulating him upon his release, "with all my heart that your virtue, triumphing over itself in the midst of misfortune, may achieve what remains to be accomplished for the tranquillity of France, and that that virtue may henceforth be more than ever the terror of foes and the support of a State of which you are the glory and the delight" — with more of the same sort, addressed to "the most illustrious prince in the world."

Condé was not likely to be silent concerning the impassioned partisanship of the northern Queen, and since it was not as an element of peace and tranquillity that he was regarded at the moment in France, her attitude may have served to accentuate the irritation already caused by her interference. The authorities lost no time in making their sentiments on the subject plain; and, inspired by Mazarin, the Council of State, whilst thanking the Queen of Sweden for her good-will, added that she could not be allowed to take cognisance of differences between King Louis and his subjects.

In administering the rebuff, Cardinal and Council were doing no more than enunciating an axiom of international relations. They might, had they been so minded, have gone further and retorted by recommending Christina to turn her attention to domestic affairs. For[,] though the condition of Sweden contrasted favourably with that of France, its sovereign might have found amply sufficient to occupy her at home.

The great question of the succession was settled. Sweden was no longer without an acknowledged heir, and Christina's cousin was to be King whenever Providence — or, as she may secretly have added, herself — should see fit to remove her elsewhere. Awaiting events, Prince Charles was showing his wisdom by a consistent policy of self-effacement, carefully abstaining from interference in state affairs, living quietly at his country place, displaying no preferences, making no enemies, and rousing no jealousy by claims based upon his new position. There was, indeed, little to invite a man whose power was contingent on the Queen's caprice to attempt the piloting of the national vessel. Dissension between the several Orders in the State was rife, and to take part with one would be to create enemies in another. Under these circumstances Prince Charles consulted his interests best by remaining at a distance.

The questions at issue were mainly concerned with a large amount of property which had been alienated from the Crown and granted to nobles. The Orders antagonistic to the nobility demanded its restitution, whilst those in possession were firm in the defence of their rights. So far defeated but sullen, the assailants were awaiting an opportunity of renewing the attack; the clergy adding another element of discord by claiming an undue weight in public affairs. The impoverished condition of the public finances, consequent upon the Queen's lavish gift of lands from which the revenue of the State was drawn, was also giving rise to just and wide-spread disapproval, and occasioning a difficulty in meeting necessary expenditure.

Such being the state of the country at large, discontent was also rife at Court. Christina's open disregard of quarterings and genealogies was tending to rob ancient blood and race of their monopolies and to interfere with vested interests. Titles were still easier than lands to bestow, and the more prized because they had hitherto been few. The Senate was flooded with new names, even the Queen's tailor being ennobled. And, besides all this, Magnus de la Gardie, as Grand Master of the Palace, reigned supreme in the Queen's good graces.

Neither Court nor country were therefore in a satisfactory condition, and notwithstanding Christina's love of power and high conception of the rights and privileges of sovereignty, her position at the head of a Government constantly confronted with money troubles might well, the novelty of rule over, begin to pall upon a woman whose interests were far from being limited to the administration of a kingdom. She had begun to attract to her Court the philosophers and men of letters whose society she prized; and, in contrast to the hours spent with them, the daily drudgery of uncongenial toil was thrown into yet more vivid relief. These considerations should be borne in mind in connection with her future conduct. The time was fast approaching when she was to make publicly known the comparative values she set upon the various goods life has to bestow, and to vindicate her liberty of choice. Whilst she sat at the feet of a new teacher or embarked on a fresh study, possibilities were taking shape before her eyes; and she was pondering a means of escape from the irksome duties of a mode of life leaving scanty leisure to devote to the objects alone rendering existence, in her opinion, desirable. Such meditations are scarcely carried on wholly in secret. Before long[,] rumours of an abdication had crept abroad, and had presently been so far authenticated that the French envoy was using his influence to discourage any step of the kind.

That Christina, at twenty-five, and with life before her, should have entertained the idea of resigning her sceptre must, when new, have been a fact startling and strange to all concerned. To her subjects, in whose eyes she was pre-eminently the daughter and representative of the great King they had lost, the thought of her voluntary abandonment of the post he had bequeathed to her, with its duties and responsibilities, was bitter. To strangers and foreigners looking on, it meant a curious and interesting situation. To Charles Gustavus it opened out the chance of enjoyment in youth of an inheritance he can only have anticipated in the dim, uncertain future.

Christina's design was not destined to find its accomplishment until three years later. But in 1651 it appeared imminent. Nor is there any doubt that the Queen was then sincere in her wish to lay down at once the burden of government. Many motives combined to influence her. The period during which she had ruled, nominally or in fact, had been marked by success; and past success gives rise, in some natures, to fear lest subsequent failure should dim its lustre. Moreover, she was well aware of the condition of the public Treasury — a condition partly consequent on her own reckless expenditure — and was too shrewd not to foresee a coming crisis. And, besides all this, the tedium of a daily routine of business was intolerable to her impatient and restless spirit. She longed for leisure for study, thought, and the play of imagination, crowded out by official cares. She wished to visit new countries, to enjoy the liberties denied to a Queen chained to the vessel of State.

"I think I see the devil when I see these men", she told Prince Charles, as her secretaries, bringing documents for signature, interrupted an interview with her cousin. To Chanut she wrote in the same strain: "I seem to see the devil with his horns when these torments of secretaries, always at my heels, approach." She meant, she told the Prince, to resign the government to him who would have force, capacity, and wisdom to administer it.

To whatever motives it was due, the Queen's design, from a mere startling rumour, became certainty in October 1651, when she imparted to the Senate, in an interview lasting over five hours and a half, her wish to transfer the crown to the head of the man who was now hereditary Prince of Sweden. The announcement had been already made to Charles, who, carrying out his former line of conduct, strongly deprecated the contemplated change, reiterating his professions of loyalty and of an obedience to last so long as Christina lived.

He could, perhaps, scarcely have done less. Abdication on his cousin's part was a measure unpopular in the extreme, and, had he benefited by it without opposition, he would have shared in its unpopularity. The Senate, together with the Notables of the Estates, then at Stockholm, brought all their powers of persuasion to bear to induce the Queen to relinquish her plan. With Oxenstiern, her father's old friend and servant, as their spokesman, they waited upon her in a body, and, partly by admonition and remonstrance, partly by appeal, strove to shake her resolution. In language sounding strangely in modern ears the Chancellor — no blind flatterer or courtier — warned her of the consequences to Sweden should she carry her intention into effect, and in the name of the chief officers of the State declared that, convinced that ruin would follow upon her withdrawal, should she relinquish the helm, they, for their part, would abandon the vessel; and that, unwilling that posterity should reproach them with having consented to a step so dangerous to the country, each and all would resign their offices.

More was said; money was promised from private sources for the maintenance of her house. Let Christina remain and all would be well. The Assembly was thrilled with emotion; tears were shed; and finally the Queen, not insensible to the loyalty and affection of which proof had been given, consented to relinquish her project; but on one condition. That condition was that the subject of marriage should never again be broached. The pledge was given, and the Senate was victorious.

Universal rejoicing hailed Christina's consent to retain her place upon the throne, and Charles, adding his congratulations to the rest, prayed God she might survive him, and repeated his determination not to accept the crown during her life-time. Those who were intimately acquainted with Christina must have suspected that the end was not yet.

Amid the general jubilation of a people who appear to have strangely felt that, deprived of their Queen, they would be unshepherded sheep, a discordant note was struck in the shape of a seditious appeal to the Prince to seize the reins of government and to put to death, with her chief councillors, a Queen who was bringing the country to ruin by means of her extravagance and amusements, and whose ear was possessed by the Constable de la Gardie, the Chancellor, and Count Magnus.

Prince Charles sent the document to the Queen (She afterwards denied the nature of its contents.); the author [sic] was discovered and executed, and the affair was at an end. It had given voice to the growing discontent of a faction hitherto only audible in murmurs.

Before quitting the subject of this first attempt on Christina's part to disembarrass herself of the reins of government, it should be observed that in later years it was her custom to explain her ultimate abdication on the grounds of religion. But it must be noted that at the time when her project first took shape, as well as at a somewhat later date, she appears to have had no leanings towards the faith she subsequently embraced. "I cannot consent", she wrote to Bishop Godeau in 1651, when, in sending her some of his compositions, he had added a hope that she might become a convert to Catholicism, "that you should desire and expect a thing that cannot come to pass. My mind has been chiefly applied to the search after truth, nor could I make a change without putting a greater distance between myself and the goal I have always set before me. I have long been persuaded that the things I believe are the things that should be believed. It would rather be for me to wish that, among the many fair lights by which your spirit is illumined, you possessed on this subject those that are mine."

Not less plainly was her attitude defined when, in 1652, a rumour reached Sweden that Prince Charles's brother-in-law, the Landgrave of Hesse-Eschwege [sic], was intending to follow the example set by the Landgrave Ernest of Hesse-Rheinfels, and to embrace the Catholic religion. To the anxious Charles Gustavus she sent condolences and sympathy; to the possible backslider she addressed admonition and warning. "The subject of your grief is just", she wrote to the first, "that I am in a difficulty in seeking for reasons which may comfort you." On the Landgrave she urged the motives which should make him pause. Leaving the disputes of theology to doctors and divines, she pressed upon him a point of honour. "Can you be unaware of the hatred incurred by him who changes from those whom he separates; and do you not know, by many famous examples, that he is despised by those he joins? Consider, if you please, the importance to the reputation of a Prince that he should be esteemed constant, and be sure you will inflict great damage on your own, should you commit a like fault." And at much length she continued to point out to him the evil consequences of a repudiation of Protestantism, including, amongst them, an eternal remorse.

In the face of these documents[,] the theory which would explain by Christina's abdication her desire for a change of religion alone may be dismissed; although it will be seen that it had much to do with her final determination to carry the matter through three years after she had yielded to the instances of friends and councillors and had consented to retain her position at the head of the State.

Swedish translation (by Flygare):

Om förhållandena i Sverige för det närvarande voro ganska lugna, sönderslets däremot dess gamla bundsförvant Frankrike af inre split, och Kristina, hvars intressen aldrig begränsades af geografiska och nationella skiljemurar, följde med ifver händelsernas gång och sökte med ungdomens lättvindiga optimism åvägabringa återupprättandet af ett fredligt förhållande mellan den unge kung Ludvig och hans upproriska undersåter. Att ledaren af dessa upproriska undersåter redan gjorts till föremål för hennes beundran sporrade ytterligare hennes bemödanden. För henne var vid denna tid den aldrig sedde Condé — kanske, att döma af framtiden, så mycket mer som han var osedd — tidehvarfvets hjälte. Då hon skickade de la Gardie till Paris, hade hon åt honom anförtrott ett bref, som han på vägen skulle lämna till den man, hvilken som hertig af Enghien nyss i det andra slaget vid Nördlingen hämnats svenskarnes nederlag på samma slagfält. Ung och i första glansen af sin militära bana var han en kämpe väl ägnad att slå an på Kristinas fantasi, och efter att ha korat honom till sin hjälte skickade hon honom ett egenhändigt lyckönskningsbref.

»Jag försäkrar er«, skref hon, »att mina egna framgångar aldrig rört mig närmare än edra segrar. Om ni icke gjort mer än att med så mycken tapperhet hämna mina soldaters maner vid Nördlingen, skulle det otvifvelaktigt hos mig framkallat en synnerlig uppskattning af er ära. Jag hoppas, monsieur, att edra stordåd i Tyskland måtte fortsättas, och mina intressen föranleda mig att önska, att ni en gång måtte gå öfver Rhen och dymedelst fullborda nedsättandet af edra fienders mod.»

Enghien var icke den som lät sig öfverträffas i artighet och i sitt svar hembar han en rättvis hyllningsgärd åt den store fältherre som företrädt honom. »Kristinas ädelmod», så sade han, »förvandlade alldagliga handlingar till storartade segrar och det var endast det pris hon satte på dem, som gaf dem deras värde. Hennes fars eröfringar hade kommit honom att hoppas på mera betydande framgångar. Men som Gustaf Adolf från sin födelse varit utan like, var det icke att undra på att hvad han utfört icke af andra kunde upprepas. Jag nöjer mig med att vid Nördlingen ha hämnats en förolämpning, som Fortuna tillfogat honom efter hans död, men som hon icke vågat komma med, om han lefvat. Jag erkänner, madame, att då jag godtgjorde den, kämpade jag för hans ära och eder, på det att edra fiender, så ofta besegrade af honom, icke skulle kunna berömma sig af att en gång ha öfvervunnit er.»

Tiderna voro nu förändrade; hjälten hade råkat i onåd i hemlandet, och ehuru Ludvig, som representerade den kränkta och trotsade konungamakten, vädjade till Kristina, ställde sig hennes kvinnliga sympatier på den mans sida, som hon på sätt och vis ansåg som sin personlige förkämpe.

Condé hade minsann icke heller varit sen att göra anspråk på hennes stöd. Från sitt fängelse i Vincennes skref han till Kristina och bad henne göra drottningenregenten och Mazarin föreställningar för att de missbrukat sin makt. Denna vädjan var i full samklang med Kristinas böjelse. Att träda fram som medlerska i en af de europeiska stormakternas angelägenheter var en plikt, som mycket tilltalade hennes benägenhet att göra sig gällande och stod i samklang med den uppskattning af personlig makt och inflytande som hon uttalade längre fram, då hon skref att hon »sedan hon blifvit myndig gjort sig till absolut härskarinna ej endast i sitt eget land utan i hela Europa, hvars öden tycktes bero af hennes vilja allena». Utledsen på regeringsrutinen i sin vrå af världen och kanske, trots den plats hennes far tillvunnit Sverige bland folken, medveten om en viss landsortsmässighet i sin omgifning, längtade hon att få göra sitt inflytande gällande i en större sfär och dröjde icke att besvara Condés hemställan. De många bref hon på stridens olika stadier ställde till de olika deltagarna däri vittna om hennes nit och verksamhetsifver. Konungens mor, den unge kung Filip af Spanien, parlamentet i Paris, kardinal de Retz, hertigen af Orléans, hertigen af Longueville, mademoiselle de Montpensier och Condé själf mottogo i tur och ordning skrifvelser, hvari Kristina föreställde dem plikten att bilägga sina stridigheter och återskänka fred åt det upprörda landet.

Frankrike skulle utan tvifvel vunnit på att man följt hennes råd. Men Kristina hade väl icke kunnat vänta, att man skulle tillåta en utländsk suverän att spela den roll hon var så angelägen att utföra, ej heller voro hennes förebråelser af den art, att de med gillande kunde betraktas af de makthafvande. För hertigen af Orléans uttalade hon tydligt sin sympati för denna önskan att utverka Mazarins fördrifvande, som varit den förnämsta anledningen till tvisten och hon tillade — för en gång medveten om att protestantismen hade någon förtjänst — och om hennes religion ej hade någon annan fördel än att bilda skyddsvärn mot prelaternas ärelystnad och oregerlighet, var det åtminstone en tröst att se nationer som lämnades i fred för kardinaler och biskopar. Till Condé — i hennes ögon dramats centralfigur, en hjälte som fallit i onåd och som lönades med otack för de glänsande tjänster han gjort landet — skref hon i ordalag som bevisade hennes talang att använda smicker. »Jag hoppas», sade hon efter att ha lyckönskat honom till hans frigifvande, »af hela mitt hjärta att er dygd, som framgått segrande midt under olyckan, må åstadkomma hvad som ännu är ofullbordadt för Frankrikes lugn och att denna dygd hädanefter måtte mer än någonsin blifva en skräck för fienden och ett stöd för den stat, hvars ära och fröjd ni är», m. m. i samma stil ställdt till »den illustraste prins i världen».

Det var icke troligt att Condé skulle förtiga det passionerade medhåll hon fick röna af den nordiska drottningen, och som han vid den tiden icke i Frankrike ansågs som ett element af fridsamhet och lugn, så är det ganska troligt, att hennes ställning till saken ökade den förtret som redan framkallats af hennes ingripande. Myndigheterna dröjde icke att klargöra sina känslor i ämnet, och statsrådet, inspireradt af Mazarin, tackade drottningen af Sverige för hennes välvilja på samma gång som det förklarade, att hon icke kunde tillåtas att befatta sig med meningsskiljaktigheterna mellan kung Ludvig och hans undersåtar.

Då kardinalen och statsrådet uttalade denna tillrättavisning, gåfvo de endast uttryck åt ett axiom rörande mellanfolkliga förbindelser. De hade, om de så velat, kunnat gå ändå längre och råda Kristina att vända sin uppmärksamhet åt sitt eget rikes inre angelägenheter. Ty ehuru tillståndet i Sverige gynnsamt kontrasterade mot tillståndet i Frankrike, hade suveränen kunnat finna fullt tillräcklig sysselsättning inom det egna landet.

Den stora successionsfrågan var afgjord. Sverige var icke längre i saknad af en erkänd arftagare till kronan och Kristinas kusin skulle bli kung närhelst försynen — eller, som hon kanske i tysthet tänkte, hon själf — funne för godt att förflytta henne på annat håll. Karl Gustaf såg tiden an och visade klokheten i sin politik genom att hålla sig undan, aktade sig noga för all inblandning i statens angelägenheter, lefde i landtlig tillbakadragenhet, tycktes hvarken föredraga den ena eller andra, skaffade sig icke några fiender och väckte ingen afund genom att framkomma med anspråk, grundade på hans nya ställning. Det fanns i sanning föga som kunde fresta en man, hvars ställning var beroende af drottningens nyck, att söka lotsa fram det nationella fartyget. Tvedräkt rådde mellan de olika stånden inom staten och att taga parti för ett hade varit att skaffa sig fiender i ett annat. Under sådana förhållanden tjänade Karl Gustaf bäst sina intressen genom att hålla sig på afstånd.

Tvistefrågorna rörde sig förnämligast kring en massa jordegendom som frånhändts kronan och förlänats åt adeln. De öfriga stånden reste sig mot adeln och fordrade att godsen skulle återbördas, under det att de som voro i besittning af dem med fasthet försvarade sin rätt. Hittills öfvermannade men förgrymmade öfver nederlaget afvaktade angriparna ett tillfälle att förnya anfallet och prästerskapet förvärrade misshälligheterna genom att vilja tillvälla sig en otillbörlig betydelse i statens angelägenheter. Finansernas bedröfliga skick — en följd af drottningens slösaktiga gåfvor af jord, från hvilken staten hämtat sina inkomster — gaf också upphof till rättvist och allmänt ogillande samt föranledde svårigheter när det gällde bestridandet af nödvändiga utgifter.

Sådant var tillståndet i det stora hela landet rundt, och äfven vid hofvet rådde missnöje. Kristinas öppet visade ringaktning för anor och genealogier hotade att beröfva de gamla förnäma släkterna deras monopol och att komma i strid med häfdvunna intressen. Titlar voro fortfarande lättare att tilldela än gods och högt skattade, emedan de hittills varit få. Nu öfversvämmades riddarhuset af nya namn, och till och med drottningens skräddare blef adlad. Härtill kom att Magnus de la Gardie, som blifvit utnämnd till hofmarskalk, intog främsta platsen i drottningens gunst.

Hvarken hofvets eller landets tillstånd kunde följaktligen anses tillfredsställande och ehuru Kristina älskade makten och hade en hög föreställning om suveränens rättigheter och privilegier, var det helt naturligt, att hennes ställning i spetsen för en regering, som ständigt hade penningebekymmer, skulle, sedan styrelseuppgiften förlorat nyhetens behag, börja plåga en kvinna, hvars intressen visst icke inskränkte sig till regerandet af ett konungarike. Hon hade börjat att till sitt hof draga filosofer och vetenskapsmän, hvilkas sällskap hon värderade, och i motsats till de timmar hon tillbragte med dem, framstod det dagliga släpet med motbjudande sysselsättningar i en än starkare relief. Man bör fasthålla dessa omständigheter i sammanhang med hennes uppförande längre fram. Den tid närmade sig hastigt, då hon skulle göra allmänt kändt, hur hon värderade de skilda fördelar lifvet har att bjuda, och häfda sin frihet att välja. Under det att hon satt vid en ny lärares fötter eller gaf sig in på ett nytt studium, började vissa möjligheter taga form för hennes ögon och hon sökte ifrigt efter någon utväg att undkomma de besvärliga plikterna i ett lefnadssätt, som lämnade föga tid öfrig att ägna de föremål, hvilka i hennes tanke voro de enda som gjorde tillvaron önskvärd. Dylika meditationer förblifva sällan hemliga. Det dröjde icke länge innan det började hviskas om en förestående tronafsägelse och snart hade dessa rykten visat sig så pass autentiska, att det franska sändebudet begagnade sitt inflytande för att afråda alla steg i den riktningen.

Att Kristina vid tjugufem års ålder och med lifvet framför sig haft i tankarna att nedlägga sin spira måste att börja med ha varit ett öfverraskande faktum som förefallit alla besynnerligt. För hennes undersåtar, i hvilkas ögon hon först och främst var dottern till och representanten för den store konung de förlorat, var tanken på hennes frivilliga öfvergifvande af den post han med dess plikter och ansvar gifvit henne i testamente mycket bitter. För främlingar och utlänningar, som blott voro åskådare, företedde det hela en egendomlig och intressant situation. För Karl Gustaf öppnade det möjligheten till att redan som ung öfvertaga en arfvedel, hvars besittning han motsett först i en dunkel och oviss framtid.

Kristinas afsikt skulle dock icke nå sin fullbordan förrän tre år senare. År 1651 föreföll det dock som om det skulle ske förr och det röner intet tvifvel, att drottningen då uppriktigt önskade att genast befria sig från regeringsbördan. Många skäl förenade sig om att påverka henne. Den period hvarunder hon regerat, till namnet eller i verkligheten, hade utmärkts af framgång och hos somliga naturer ger framgången under en förfluten tid upphof till farhåga för att kommande tiders nederlag skall fördunkla dess glans. Dessutom hade hon väl reda på hur det stod till med de offentliga finanserna — delvis till följd af hennes ohejdade slöseri — och hon var alldeles för skarpsinnig att icke förutse en stundande kris. Och därtill kom att enformigheten i göromålens dagliga rutin var alldeles odräglig för hennes otåliga och rastlösa ande. Hon längtade efter tid till studier, tankearbete och fantasispel, som nu undanträngdes af officiella omsorger. Hon önskade besöka främmande länder och njuta af en frihet, som förvägrades en vid Sveriges statsskepp fastkedjad drottning.

»Jag tycker mig se den onde själf då jag ser dessa män», sade hon till Karl Gustaf, då hennes sekreterare kommo in med dokument, som hon skulle underteckna och afbröto hennes samtal med kusinen. Till Chanut skref hon i samma stil: »Det är som såge jag djäfvulen själf med sina horn då dessa plågoandar till sekreterare, som alltid förfölja mig, stiga in.» Hon ämnade, detta sade hon kusinen, afsäga sig regeringen till fördel för honom, som ägde kraft, förmåga och klokhet att handhafva den.

Anledningen må hafva varit hvilken som helst, så öfvergick drottningens afsikt från att blott ha varit ett sensationellt rykte till att bli verklighet i oktober 1651, då hon meddelade rådet, vid ett sammanträde som räckte i fem och en half timma, sin önskan att öfverflytta kronan på den mans hufvud, som nu var Sveriges arffurste. Saken hade redan delgifvits Karl Gustaf, som, fullföljande den riktlinje han inslagit, afvisade den föreslagna förändringen och upprepade sina försäkringar om en trohet och lydnad, som skulle räcka så länge Kristina lefde.

Han hade kanske icke kunnat handla annorlunda. Tronafsägelse å hans kusins sida var ett i allra högsta grad impopulärt steg och om han utan invändning dragit fördel däraf hade äfven han blifvit impopulär. Rådet såväl som en då i Stockholm församlad utskottsriksdag använde hela sin öfvertalningsförmåga för att få drottningen att frångå sin plan. Med Oxenstierna, hennes fars gamle vän och tjänare, som ordförande, uppvaktade de en corps drottningen och sökte dels genom föreställningar och invändningar, dels genom böner rubba hennes beslut. I ett språk, som i nutidens öron ljuder sällsamt, varnade henne rikskansleren, som icke var någon blind smickrare eller hofman, för följderna för Sverige, om hon satte sin afsikt i verket, och han förklarade i statens förnämsta ämbetsmäns namn, att de, öfvertygade om att ruin skulle följa på hennes nedläggande af riksrodret, ämnade, i händelse hon vidhöll sin föresats, öfvergifva skeppet. För att undgå att af eftervärlden bli beskyllda för att ha samtyckt till ett för landet så farligt steg, ämnade de samt och synnerligen nedlägga sina ämbete.

Och det sades mera; penningar från enskilda källor lofvades för underhållet af hennes hof. Om blott Kristina stannade kvar, skulle allt gå väl. De församlade darrade af rörelse, tårar fälldes, och till sist lofvade drottningen, som icke var känslolös för den trohet och tillgifvenhet, hvarpå hon fått bevis, att afstå från sitt förslag — men på ett villkor. Och villkoret var, att giftermålsfrågan aldrig mer skulle komma på tal. Man lofvade detta och rådet hade segrat.

Med allmänt jubel hälsades Kristinas samtycke att bibehålla sin plats på tronen och Karl Gustaf, som lade sina lyckönskningar till de andras, bad Gud att hon måtte öfverlefva honom och upprepade sitt beslut att icke mottaga kronan under hennes lifstid. De som voro närmare bekanta med Kristina misstänkte nog, att saken ännu icke var afgjord.

Genom jubelropen från ett folk som måtte ha haft en egendomlig känsla af att det, beröfvadt sin drottning, skulle vara som får utan herde, trängde en skärande dissonans under formen af ett bref till Karl Gustaf, hvari denne uppmanades att fatta regeringstömmarna och att mörda jämte drottningens förnämsta rådgifvare äfven drottningen själf (Några maningar till mord torde ej ha förekommit i brefvet. Öfvers. anm.), som genom sitt slöseri och sina nöjen bragt ruin öfver landet och hvars öra endast lånades åt riksmarsken de la Gardie, rikskansleren och grefve Magnus.

Karl Gustaf skickade brefvet till drottningen, dess författare blef upptäckt och afrättad och hela den affären var slut. Det hade gifvit målföre åt det växande missnöjet hos ett parti, som förut endast gifvit sig tillkänna genom mummel.

Innan vi upphöra att sysselsätta oss med detta Kristinas första försök att befria sig från regeringstömmarna, bör det anmärkas, att hon under senare år hade för sed att förklara sin slutliga tronafsägelse på religiösa grunder. Man måste dock komma ihåg, att hon vid den tid då förslaget först tog form så väl som en tid därefter icke tycktes hafva någon lutning åt den bekännelse hon sedan omfattade. »Jag gillar icke», skref hon till biskop Godeau, då denne sändt henne några af sina tal och bifogat en förhoppning att hon med tiden skulle öfvergå till katolicismen, »att ni önskar och väntar någonting som icke kan ske. Mitt sinne har alltid varit riktadt på sökandet efter sanningen och jag kunde icke göra en förändring utan att förlänga afståndet mellan mig själf och det mål jag alltid föresatt mig. Jag har länge varit öfvertygad om att de ting jag tror äro de som böra tros. Det tillkommer snarare mig att önska, att ni, bland de många vackra ljus som upplyser eder själ, i detta afseende ägde dem som äro mina.»

Hennes ställning till frågan uttalades lika tydligt då 1652 ett rykte nådde Sverige att Karl Gustafs svåger, landtgrefven af Hessen-Eschwege [sic], ämnade följa det af landtgrefven Ernst af Hessen-Rheinfels gifna exemplet och öfvergå till katolicismen. Hon betygade genom bref den orolige Karl Gustaf sin sorg och sin deltagande, och till den förmodade öfverlöparen ställde hon förmaningar och varningar. »Anledningen till er sorg är så berättigad», skref hon, »att jag med svårighet söker efter tröstegrunder.» Hon förelade landtgrefven de skäl, som borde hålla honom tillbaka. Öfverlämnande de teologiska tvistefrågorna åt präster och lärda doktorer, behandlade hon saken ur hederns synpunkt. »Är det möjligt, att ni icke besinnar den hat, som den, hvilken öfvergår från en religion till en annan, ådrar sig från dem han sviker, och vet ni icke af många ryktbara exempel, att han blir föraktad af dem han ansluter sig till? Var god och betänk hur viktigt det är för en furste att han anses trofast och var säker på att ni genom att begå ett dylikt fel mycket skulle skada edra närmaste.» Och långt och vidlyftigt fortfor hon att för honom påpeka de sorgliga följderna af att afsäga sig den protestantiska läran, bland dem särskildt nämnande eviga samvetskval.

Med dessa dokument för ögonen måste man affärda den teori som söker skälet till Kristinas tronafsägelse uteslutande i hennes önskan att ändra religion, ehuru det kommer att visa sig, att den hade mycket att skaffa med hennes beslut att genomdrifva saken tre år efter det hon gifvit vika för sina vänners och rådgifvares trägna böner och samtyckt att bibehålla sin ställning som statens öfverhufvud.


Above: Kristina.


Above: The Prince de Condé.

Monday, September 15, 2025

Francis William Bain on Kristina and her studies, her political and personal interest in France and all things French; her aim to bring greater learning, education and culture to Sweden in light of the conditions in those areas; her philosophers and scholars; and her building up her personal library and book collection

Source:

Christina, Queen of Sweden, pages 143 to 171, by Francis William Bain, 1890; original at the University of Connecticut Library


René Descartes' letter of February 16/26 (New Style), 1649 to Pierre Hector Chanut is here:


René Descartes' letter of September 29/October 9 (New Style), 1649 to Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia and the Palatinate is here:


Kristina's letter written sometime in 1653 to Isaac de Benserade is here:


Kristina's letter of March 23/April 2 (New Style), 1653 to the Comtesse de Brégy is here:


The account:

Although Christina's attention was so much engaged during those years in the negotiations for the peace, the settlement of the succession, and the internal disturbances in her own kingdom; although at the same time she was devoting herself to hard study, and taking an eager interest in philosophical, literary, and scientific subjects, which will presently be examined, she found time to follow closely contemporary foreign events. "One would have imagined", says Whitelocke in 1653, "that England had been her native country, so well was she furnished with the character of most persons of consideration there, and with the story of the nations." She was no less interested in France and its domestic affairs. As we have seen, she laboured during the peace negotiations for a cordial understanding with that country: especially did she admire Condé; after his victory at Nordlingen she wrote him a complimentary letter, which he answered in terms equally flattering. She did not confine herself to compliments: when the French wishes to engage the troops disbanded by Sweden for the Spanish war, which still continued, Christina, although the Senate was adverse, wrote to Prince Charles, then in Germany, bidding him oblige the King of France in this. Again, still further to show her good will, she sent two men-of-war as presents, one to the Queen, and one to the Cardinal, the latter called Julius, in his honour, and valued at 40,000 crowns. The view she took of the troubles of the Fronde was influenced by her esteem for Condé, who even wrote to demand her assistance, and a change is afterwards observable in her opinion of Mazarin. With the view of mediating between the belligerent parties, she wrote to Condé twice, to the King of France, to the King of Spain, to the Duke of Orleans, to Mademoiselle de Montpensier, to the Parliament, as well as to Cardinal de Retz and Anne of Austria.

In that to the Duke of Orleans she alludes to Mazarin as a stranger, who wishes to dictate the law and not stop till he has ruined all. Mazarin was aware of her views and resented her interference; some incautious expressions of her resident in Paris, though she afterwards disavowed them, increased the bad feeling, and her attempts at pacifying differences led to nothing.

When we come to consider Christina's reign on what is perhaps its most brilliant side, we must beware of falling into the mistake of supposing that the sudden scientific and literary glitter which emanated from Sweden at this moment has anything in common with those periods in history, such as that of Pericles in Athens or Elizabeth in England, when the national activity in war is accompanied by a spontaneous impulse in intellectual creation. There was scarcely any native element in the specious, but factitious and imported mental energy of the Swedish court; it depended almost entirely upon Christina's personal interest and patronage. She found Sweden on her accession in a state of intellectual darkness, into which when she vacated the throne it sank back, or rather from which it had never risen; not that she did not make a great effort to promote a better condition of things, but the people were not able to respond to her attempts — in spite of here and there an isolated instance, which only show more plainly because of the general want of culture. The position which Sweden then occupied in Europe was entirely based upon military relations, and far greater than its internal progress, whether commercial, intellectual, or social, entitled it to hold. A glance at this will materially assist us in estimating Christina's own influence.

The bad state of the finances, and the dangerous relation of the social strata to one another, as far as highest and lowest, nobles and peasantry, are concerned, have been already described. A middle class, manufacturing and commercial, was still in its infancy. The only good thing to be said for the war, that it brought Sweden into closer relation with the rest of Europe, and thus paved the way for commerce, must not be overlooked. Gustavus Adolphus endeavoured to improve it in various ways, especially in respect of handicrafts and manufactures; foreign artisans, refugees from Holland, France, Germany, and Spain, were encouraged to come and remain by special privileges and exemptions; by their instruction the fabrication of raw material, such as cotton and wool, weaving, metal and leather factories were improved; the working of the mines in which Sweden's chief wealth lay, silver, iron, and especially copper, received a great impulse from De Geer, who came from Holland, and the Walloon smiths he brought with him; this again acted beneficially on the manufacture of weapons of all kinds, which formed a chief article of export in exchange for, e.g., salt from Portugal, with which Sweden was ill supplied; some Crown monopolies, such as those of salt and corn, were withdrawn. Axel Oxenstiern's large views on trade have already been given, but monopolies and the system of guilds were the basis of the Swedish economical principles: "a man might make himself king in Sweden", said Klas Flemming, "but could not make himself a tailor." This, and the doubtful political relations, especially the jealousy of the Powers on the Baltic, stood in the way of commercial progress; though Sweden, in 1642, even extended her trade to the Delaware, on the banks of which was erected a Fort Christina. The trade, principally tobacco, was held as a monopoly by the State.

The educational provision in Sweden was very poor. Gustavus Adolphus did what he could for it; he established the University of Upsala on a new basis, endowed it with lands of his own, furnished it with a library and sent it books from Germany: at Dorpat he founded a college. In this respect even the nobles did something; during his governorship in Finland[,] Brahé established various schools and a college at Åbo; Axel Oxenstiern, a college at Westerås; John Skytté, a chair of history and political philosophy at Upsala; schools were also founded by Baner, Bielke, and others. Little was taught, however, but grammar, rhetoric, and logic, the most useless of all subjects to begin on; history very scantily, Latin badly. Whitelocke tells us that the professors at Upsala were promised good salaries, but complained that they were not well paid. The library at Upsala was not as good as his own private one; as he informed some of the scholars, "who were not well pleased therewith." He gave five pounds to Ravius, professor of Hebrew, whose pension was supposed to be 500 rix dollars, but he was never paid; he frequently refers to the bad Latin of the students. Theology flourished best, though there were few men of liberal opinions such as Matthiæ. "The Swedes", an ecclesiastic told Whitelocke, "generally and devoutly do adhere to the opinions of Luther and to the practice of the churches allowed by him, and whoever differs from them is not only looked upon with an evil eye, but commonly driven from the country." "In the seventeenth century it was ordered in Sweden and confirmed by Government, that if any Swedish subject change his religion, he shall be banished the kingdom, and lose all right of inheritance both for himself and his descendants. If any bring into the country teachers of another religion, he shall be fined and banished." Roman Catholics were not allowed to exercise their religion in Sweden till 1781. Just as in Scotland, to which in this respect Sweden was very similar, long sermons were the special feature of the religious service. The people were very superstitious; even the leading clergymen believed in leagues with the devil and witchcraft. In Finland, where the inhabitants were not men, said Oxenstiern, but beasts, Brahé made it the necessary standard for a priest that he should know his catechism. The greatest intolerance prevailed, especially of Roman Catholics or Calvinists. In 1657 a peasant was condemned to death for railing against the minister of his parish. Science did not exist, although alchemy and astrology were generally practised, and the philosopher's stone hunted for; any man of a little knowledge was regarded as a magician and atheist; the celebrated Stiernhielm was accused of witchcraft for having burned a peasant's beard with a magnifying glass, and shown a clergyman a flea through it; he was in danger of his life, and was only saved by the interposition of Christina. The odium of his persecutors was further excited by his patriotic assertion that the Swedish was more ancient than the Hebrew tongue.

Especially deplorable was the condition of medicine: the nostrums of quacks and old wives' receipts were the only form of cure; no one studied the subject, as a living could not be made by it; such doctors as there were invariably prescribed bleeding. The Regents endeavoured to improve this by importing doctors from abroad, who were not much better; they established a school of anatomy, and tried to introduce surgery; but the popular odium against dissection was so great that they could hardly induce any one to practise it. "There was in Sweden", said a certain Mornichof, "one king, one religion, and one doctor."

A passage in Whitelocke is well worthy quoting. "He enquired how the Chancellor's health was, and what physicians were about him. Lagerfeldt said he was still sick of his ague, and had no physician attending him but one who had been a chirurgeon in the army, and who had some good receipts, especially for the stone, which agreed with the Chancellor's constitution, which this chirurgeon only studied and attended." And so it was generally in this great and large country. Whitelocke met with no doctor of physic or professed physician in any town or country, nor any attending the person of the Queen herself: but there are many good women, and private persons, who use to help people that are diseased by some ordinary known remedies." The question of doctors will come before us again with reference to Christina. In Philosophy an Aristotelian scholasticism, or what was worse, the nonsense of Ramus, dominated the schools.

The private life was very rude; in Upsala, "not above nine or ten houses were built of brick." Whitelocke's own house, "a fair brick house", was the best in the town next to the Queen's own; most of them were built "of the bodies of great fir trees, covered with turf." The floors were generally not boarded, but paved with stone or brick; the walls were whitewashed, without any decoration, even in the best houses; the furniture was bad; at dinner a sort of canopy was ordinarily suspended over the table, to prevent spiders' webs from falling into the dishes. The cookery was very coarse, as also was the language; drinking and swearing were inseparable from a feast. "Thou hast preserved me", says Christina in her Memoirs, "from the vice of drunkenness, but suffered me to be infected with the vice of swearing by contagion; but by Thy grace, Lord, I have entirely cured myself of it; I am nevertheless in some sort excusable, because I was born in a country and an age where this defect reigned over both sexes alike, and people could not speak without swearing."

People were not generally well off. Whitelocke tells us of "a country minister's house, a very mean one, and his family in as mean a condition; his children in torn shirts, and no other clothes upon them in that bitter cold weather, and his wife little better furnished." During his journey from Gothenburg to Upsala, he and his suite were most miserably accommodated; "the gentlemen lay in fresh straw round about him, he being frolic and cheering them, and it is no small part of the art of government to know when to be familiar;" "they could get no other provision but the quarters of a beast which was said to be found dead in the field; Whitelocke commended the variety and dressing of this meat, and it went down with good stomachs, and made good meat afterwards to taste the sweeter, besides the delight in remembrance of it." And this is no isolated exception; the same thing occurs throughout his journey.

We shall be forcibly struck with the contrast, when we turn from this benighted condition of things to examine Christina's relations with the literary and scientific men of her time. The Peace of 1648 left her at liberty to indulge her many-sided intellectual interests: Stockholm became a loadstone to draw together savans from all parts of Europe.

Foremost among these was Descartes. She had already heard much of him from Chanut, who was a great friend of his, and a zealous Cartesian: in 1646 she sent to ask him, through Chanut, his opinion on this question: When one makes a bad use of love or hate, which of those abuses is the worst? Descartes, though we may suspect he knew as little as Bacon of the passion of love, concluded in his dissertation on the subject that when pushed to a vicious extreme, love was the most dangerous. She next asked him for his opinion on the Summum bonum, on which he sent her a treatise on the question; according to him, external blessings being precarious, there remain to us two points of special importance: to know, and to will, what is good: the sovereign good for us he places accordingly in always preserving a firm and constant resolution to do what according to our judgment is best, and endeavour with all our strength to discern it well. Shortly afterwards Christina wrote and invited him to come to Stockholm; after some hesitation he accepted, in a letter full of hyperbole; he wrote at the same time to Chanut, in which he says among other things (and the opinion of one who was so good a writer of French prose as Descartes is worth having), "I was surprised to see how easily and tersely she writes French; our whole nation is much obliged to her, therefore, and it seems to me that this Princess has been created far more in the image of God than other men have; the more so, as she can apply herself to so great a variety of business at once." Nevertheless, with characteristic caution, Descartes, to make sure of his ground, wrote to Freinsheim (whom Christina had made her librarian, the author of the 'Supplement to Livy'), and asked him whether, as he was the author of a new philosophy and a Roman Catholic, this might not be a snare of his enemies to do him harm. Freinsheim reassured him, and accordingly in October, 1649, he arrived at Stockholm, and was graciously received by Christina. The admiration was mutual: Descartes wrote soon after to his friend the Princess Elizabeth,

"The generosity and majesty of the Queen in all her actions is combined with such sweetness and goodness, as to make all fall in love with her; she is extremely given to study, though I cannot say whether she will approve of my own philosophy, as she knows nothing of it as yet." He adds, with a touch of his usual contempt for learning, that this keen ardour of hers in study incites her principally to the study of Greek and the collecting of ancient books, "but perhaps this will change."

The course of events furnishes an ironical commentary on this letter. Christina had so much to do that she was very avaricious of her time; her ardour for study made it necessary for Descartes to come and see her at five o'clock every morning in her library; her Greek studies proved to be awkward, if it be true, as is said, that she accused him of stealing his ideas from Plato. There seems to be a fatality in the relations between philosophers and princes. The early rising in a very cold climate was fatal to Descartes, who was fond of lying in bed in the morning; after about two months of these discussions before sunrise, he was attacked by fever and inflammation of the lungs, and died on February 1st, 1650. But the concern Christina showed at his death is a sufficient refutation of ill-natured reports; she was only dissuaded with difficulty from giving him a funeral like that of the ancient kings of Sweden; although Baillet's assertion, that she consulted him on political questions, is no less foolish than the tittle-tattle of Madame de Motteville, that he died because Christina despised his philosophy. He was buried at Stockholm; seventeen years afterwards his remains were removed to Paris. Though he was viewed with jealousy by the pedants at the Court, yet he left a few disciples in Sweden, who formed the nucleus of a sect; some time after, in the reign of Charles XI, nearly all the professors of philosophy at Upsala being Cartesians, the adherents of Scholasticism complained to the King, who decided in favour of the new method. Christina always attributed to him a considerable influence in her conversion; for this one of her biographers accuses her of superficiality, as, according to him, it is almost paradoxical that her Catholicism should have been induced by his sceptical principles. Why, certainly, there is here evidence of superficiality, but it is not Christina's.

A philosopher of a very different school was Gassendi, for whom, although she never met him, Christina always had a great admiration, but not greater than he deserved. In July, 1652, he wrote her a letter, telling her that he had heard of her from Bourdelot; he congratulated her on realising the ideal of Plato, who refused happiness to the human race till kings should be philosophers, and philosophers kings. Christina answered his flattery in a letter of which Malherbe declared that it was written in a style as pure as if it had been penned at the Court of France; and throughout her life she maintained a correspondence with him.

But the bulk of her admirers and protégés were men of learning rather than philosophy; of these Salmatius [sic], or Saumaise, was the first; chiefly known now, just as Milton predicted, by his 'Defence of the People of England', which was an answer to the 'Defence of the King', by Saumaise. His great reputation for learning made Christina anxious to bring him to Sweden; she wrote him several letters to invite him; finally he came in the summer of 1650, and was lodged in the royal palace. His University of Leyden, however, declared that they could no more do without him than without the sun, and he returned the next year. He was a man of an arrogant and overbearing temper, and thought that no one knew anything but himself; hence he had many enemies, especially at the Court of Sweden; there during his stay he was at variance with Vossius, Nicolas Heinsius, and others. He treated other savans, even of the first order, as merely of the mob in comparison with himself. Being one day in the library of the King of France, in company with Gaulmin and Maussac, the former said, complacently, "I think we three could make head against all the learning in Europe." Saumaise promptly replied, "Add yourself and Maussac to all the savans in the world, I will make head against the lot of you, alone." Even Grotius he treated with contempt. "One would have thought", says Bayle, "he had placed his throne on a heap of stones, in order to throw them at all that passed by." Christina was perfectly able to distinguish between different sorts of ability, and mingled her esteem for his learning with a certain contempt for his pedantry, a thing she always abhorred, though there was plenty at Stockholm; she used to call him "omnium fatuorum doctissimum" ["the most learned of all fools"], and said of him that he knew the name for a chair in all languages, but did not know how to sit down on one. Nevertheless, she had a regard for his great acquirements, and when he died, wrote a letter of condolence to his widow, (a shrew before whom the imperious scholar quailed when alive, and who burned all his MSS. on his death), rebuking her "for the homicide she had committed on his writings." It was by Saumaise that Bourdelot was introduced to the Queen, and the savans put down her changed attitude to them after the arrival of the latter in part to the machinations of Saumaise. "Constans hic est opinio", wrote Heinsius to Gronovius in 1655, "Salmasii et Bourdelotii operâ Christinam periisse." ["The opinion here is constant that Kristina has perished [been ruined] through the work of Saumaise and Bourdelot."] This "periisse", of course, represents the view taken of her conduct by the Swedish Lutherans and disappointed pedants.

In 1649, Isaac Vossius was invited to Sweden: celebrated especially for his knowledge of Greek, which Christina studied with him, he is also suspected of teaching her his own views on religion, or irreligion, for he was supposed to be an atheist, which did not prevent Charles II. from making him Canon of Windsor: the king's witticism on him, when Vossius was ventilating some wild theories about China, "This learned theologian is a strange man, he believes everything but the Bible", may have been partly the cause of his getting the canonry. He was certainly a man of lax principles as to meum and tuum, and made capital out of his commission to buy books for Christina's library: of which more anon. Nicholas Heinsius, a man of a simple[,] honourable character, the editor of Ovid and Claudian, whose father had been much esteemed by Gustavus Adolphus, was also sent by Christina into Italy to collect MSS. and books: Herman Conring, the author of the refutation of the Papal Bull already mentioned: Naudæus, whom she made her librarian: John Amos Comenius, who was summoned by Christina to come and reform all the schools in the kingdom, in accordance with his Janua Linguarum reserrata, dealing with a new method of teaching languages; Loccenius, and Schoeffer, his son-in-law, who distinguished themselves in the study of Swedish antiquities; John Henry Boecler, whom she made Professor of Eloquence at Upsala, and the year after, 1650, her historiographer, were a few among the host of savans who crowded her Court. "They came in flocks with their philology and antiquities, the fashionable learning of the age; displayed their arts, wrote dedications and panegyrics, in which all the elegancies of the Latin tongue were brought to vie in praise of the Queen, presented books, were rewarded and dismissed."

Of Boecler the following story is told, which throws light on the university system. In his lecture one day, on Tacitus, he said, "Plura adderem, si plumbea Suecorum capita ista capere possent!" ("I would say more, if the leaden heads of Swedes could take it in!") One of the students answered immediately, "We have not only understood all you have said up to now, but we will understand all you can say in future." The lecture over, Boecler started to go through the antechamber of the lecture-room, when a number of students seized him and whipped him soundly; they furthermore broke all the windows of his house, and discharged guns into the windows of his sitting-room, where he sat with his family. Christina wrote in 1650, March 15, to order this matter to be sifted, and the authors severely punished. Boecler, however, fearing further outrages, applied for his congé and left; his pay while a professor had been 2500 crowns a year; the Queen gave him, by way of consoling him, a present of 4000 crowns, with a gold chain, and 200 ducats, besides making him perpetual historiographer with a yearly pension of 800 crowns a year. To Octavio Ferrario, an Italian savant, she gave a chain of gold worth a thousand crowns, though according to him "his joy at receiving it was nothing in comparison with that caused him by the addition of a letter in her own handwriting." She gave Grotius copper to the value of 12,000 crowns; to his widow she gave 3000 th. for an MS. history of the Goths found among his papers. Copper was a favourite present: she gave Chanut and Whitelocke amounts worth £2500; she presented Freinsheim with 500 ducats for his speech on her birthday, and also remitted to his native town most of its contributions for the indemnification of the army during the war. Salmasius was "overwhelmed with benefits"; Conring had a pension of 1600 th. in virtue of his title of Councillor of Sweden. These are specimens of her open hand: small wonder if she was surrounded by an eager crowd, with mouths open to praise her, and catch as well anything that might be falling. It may be doubted whether any sovereign ever had so many complimentary odes, panegyrics, and addresses composed in his honour as this "tenth Muse" and "Pallas of the North." And yet Christina despised flattery, and like Charles II., was never deceived even by those to whom she carelessly gave; her donandi cacoethes [mania for giving] was no respecter of persons. The parasitical crowd, when her abdication robbed them of their means of living, felt like the man deprived of his goose with the golden eggs.

Among other celebrated names connected with that of Christina may be mentioned that of Huet, afterwards Bishop of Avranches, who came with Bochart to Sweden, and published years after a manuscript of Origen he had copied in her library. He writes to a friend in 1653: "As to the Northern Queen, you must not trust the common portraits of her, which are libels. She is rather plump, one shoulder higher than the other; below the middle height. Her face is refined and pretty, her hair golden; her eyes flash so that she alone in Sweden might be said to have eyes at all. There is nothing wrong with her morals; for I pay no attention to those rumours scattered, especially in Germany, to the contrary: they are all forged in Imperial workshops; she carries modesty written on her face, and shows it by the blushes which cover it at an immodest word or deed before her. Her memory is not happy; her genius above her sex, her learning above her years; she is easy of access, genial, and courteous, yet tenacious of her majesty; still she has nothing of the German or Northern gloom, but you would think she was born at Rome or Paris. She is very fond of French; this is hated by the envious Swedes. What Cicero says of himself may be said with far more justice of her, that he was not a great eater but a great jester; for she is abstemious, though a Swede, and eats sparingly, but takes wonderful pleasure in merry jests."

Here we have another cause of her calumniators' abuse. Her laughter-loving nature was viewed by jaundiced eyes by the morose Puritans of Sweden, to whom a long and sour face was a necessary element in religion. A very good instance of her humour is a letter she wrote to Benserade. He had sent her his poems, which pleased her, and was to have come to Stockholm on an embassy, but did not, for some reason or other; she wrote accordingly: —

"You may bless your fortunate star, which has prevented you from coming to Sweden. A mind so delicate as yours would have caught a chill here, and you would have gone home with a spiritual cold in your head. You would have been all the rage in Paris with a square beard, the coat of a Lapp, with shoes to match, just back from the country of hoar frost. I can picture you winning the hearts of old women in such a costume. No, I tell you you have nothing to regret. What could you come to see in Sweden? Our ice is the same as yours, except that here it lasts six months longer. And our summer, when it is violent, is so outrageous that it strikes terror into the poor flowers, which do their best to look like jasmine. ... beware of deserving such an exile; yet I could wish that by some crime you might incur such a punishment, in order to let us poor folks in Sweden see some of France's choicest and most refined wit. Your verses are much appreciated here, and she to whom you sent them is much in your debt."

Of a similar character is a letter to the Countess de Brégy: —

"I can't tell what keeps me from using hard words to you, after all you have done to deserve them. What! after keeping silence for two years do you think you can cry quits by simply 'kissing my hand' in your friend's letter. Really you ought at least to be scolded. Know that I am, so to speak, very angry with you, and that your silence has gone hard to wound me deeply. Still I pardon you, on condition you are dumb no longer. *A propos* of your silence, I am tempted to quote the Pythagoreans to you, but one must not speak of them to an ignoramus like you. So I refrain; neither will I mention all the fine things I have heard of those excellent Longbeards, for fear of being taken for a fairy. Speak, then, so as to escape the suspicion of belonging to their order. To tell you what I want, send me news of your excellent Mistress, and your young Prince; tell me of the conversations of your circle, and the playful ways of the little fellow. I will have no State secrets from you; when the fancy seizes me for them I will apply to some one else, for I believe you know nothing about them. In fact, were I King of France, I should consider you suited for quite other things than government, and employ you in a service quite distinct from that of the State. We women don't understand statecraft: your incomparable Mistress alone has shown herself an adept in it. This is the way to make up our quarrel, I commend it to you as I bid you adieu.
"CHRISTINA."

Other celebrities can but be cursorily alluded to; Scarron, who sent her one of his comedies; Balzac, who was rewarded for the present of his works with a gold chain; Desmarets; Scudéry, who dedicated his 'Alaric' to her; his sister, Mdlle. de Scudéry, enjoyed a pension from Christina; Mézerai, the historian, to whom she assigned one of 3000 florins a year; Ménage, who wrote an eclogue in her honour, called 'Christina', and acquired a gold chain. It is from him we learn that in the dispute as to the relative merits of ancients and moderns, Christina was for the ancients; speaking of philosophy, she declared that "les sottises anciennes valaient bien les nouvelles." It was to him that she made one of her wittiest mots. She used to hold a literary assembly in her Academy every Thursday. "At that time", says Ménage, "my assemblies were on Wednesday. Learning this[,] the Queen wrote to me, 'Ma Joviale est très humble serviteur de votre Mercuriale.'[" "]I have always thought", he adds, "this could not have come from her, it is too French for a stranger." But Huet avers that he had never known any one like Christina for the "swiftness of a keen and fiery wit." To these is to be added Pascal, who sent her his "Roulette" machine, with an explanatory letter; the English painter, Cooper, who came to her Court; the learned Manasseh Ben Israel, a Portuguese Jew, a wise and excellent man, who offered to procure her Hebrew books for her library, and dedicated to her his work 'Conciliador.' He went to England and was well received by Cromwell, and perhaps may have had influence on that great man's tolerance of Jews. Cromwell's secretary, Andrew Marvell, wrote a panegyrical ode upon Christina, and Milton's eulogy, in the 'Second Defence', is well known. Christina is said to have disgusted Saumaise by praising Milton's 'Defence' to him. Milton declares her in the second part "fit to govern not only Europe[,] but the world."

These names and instances, many of them men whose praise was worth having, are a sufficient proof of Christina's wide-spread fame and various scientific interests. Among those who adorned her Court were but few natives of Sweden, yet we must not omit Stiernhielm, a universal genius, "at once philosopher, geometer, philologist and poet", whom she protected from the bigots of the day, and the two Rudbecks, father and son; the letter, Olaus, celebrated especially for his discovery of the lymphatic vessels, and his 'Atlantica', a work of Northern antiquities, of vast learning and great value for its time, though its patriotic zeal was open to ridicule, as readers of Gibbon will remember. Other Swedish names there are, but of little note; in point of fact the national element was conspicuous mostly for its absence; the splendour of the Court was a costly exotic.

Christina took especial pains to collect books and manuscripts for her libraries, as we have noticed. She writes to Sarrau in April, 1651, who was negotiating to buy for her the celebrated De Mesmes library (the only one, says Lacroix, that could bear comparison with that of De Thou), that she fears some one may have stolen a Varro which ought to be there, but cannot find in the catalogue, and bids him have an eye to it. She commissioned one Job Ludolphe, who knew twenty-two languages, to go to Rome and buy and bring to Sweden all MSS. relating to it carried thither at the Reformation, though he did not succeed, as they had already been conveyed to Poland. Nicolas Heinsius and Isaac Vossius were also sent on the same mission; the former to Italy, where he met with great success: "the Italians began to complain that ships were laden with the spoils of their libraries, and that all their best aids to learning were carried away from them to the remotest north." Heinsius, in a letter to the Queen, informs her that her name was venerated in Italy. Vossius went to Holland, France, and Germany, spending enormous sums in purchasing all the MSS. he could find. Her own library was much enriched by the sale of Mazarin's, as well as by spoils from various places taken in the war, as Wurzburg, Olmütz, Bremen, Prague. Vossius even sold her his own library for 20,000 florins, reserving to himself the superintendence and 5000 florins a year, besides lodging and board at Court. "The Royal Library", wrote Huet in 1653, "is stuffed full, four large rooms won't hold it." But the dishonesty of savans such as Vossius, who abused the confidence of the Queen, reduced it to a great extent. Heinsius says, in 1654, that the French had pillaged the library, and that Vossius had carried off rich but scandalous spoils to Holland with him; of the 762 MSS. which were sold after his death to the University of Leyden, doubtless most were Christina's. What became of her remaining library after her own death will be seen in the sequel.

The intellectual interests of the "Northern Pallas" are summed up in a letter which Naudé wrote to Gassendi in October, 1652: "Of the Queen I can say without flattery, that in the conversations which she often holds with MM. Bochart, Bourdelot, Du Fresne, and myself, she maintains her part better than any one of us: I shall not lie if I tell you that her genius is altogether extraordinary, for she has seen, read, and knows all. ... To say truth, I am sometimes afraid lest the common saying should be verified in her, that short is the life, and rare the old age of those who surpass the common limits. ... don't suppose she is only learned in books, for she is so equally in painting, architecture, sculpture, medals, antiquities, and all curiosities: there is not a cunning workman in these arts but she has him fetched: there are as good workers in wax, enamel, engravers, singers, players, dancers, here as will be found anywhere. ... She has a gallery of statues, bronze and marble, medals of gold, silver, and bronze, pieces of ivory, amber, coral, worked crystal, steel mirrors, clocks and tables, bas-reliefs and other things of the kind; richer I have never seen even in Italy; finally a great quantity of pictures; in short[,] her mind is open to all impressions." This was not more than the truth; that her ardour in all these subjects was based on a genuine artistic taste was shown in the eagerness to gain possession of her collections after her death.

She has been very unfortunate, in that all her efforts could do little for Swedish culture, which did not meet her half-way. She laboured hard to promote the growth of learning and letters in Sweden. She took care to commit the various branches of study to the hands of learned professors who came from abroad. She frequently went to Upsala to encourage the speeches and dissertations; she went, for instance, to hear Terserus and Stiernhielm dispute on the Hebrew text of Scripture. At Dorpat she built a college, and gave it a library; at Abo in Finland (She gave the Finns their first translation of the Bible [sic].) she increased the college founded by her father in 1627, and made it a University similar to that at Upsala, endowing it with money and books: during her reign six other colleges were established at other places. She sent books taken from Olmütz and Prague to the University of Upsala. She aided many students to go abroad and study at foreign universities, and even sent some to Arabia to study in the East. She would allow no one to be doctor in philosophy who had not twice held open disputation on definite theses. She ordered, that no theological professor should at the same time be professor in philosophy. She caused a certain Dutchman to come and establish a good printing press in Stockholm. She wrote to Forsius, enjoining him to publish his physical works in Swedish rather than Latin, in order to be understood of the people.

All this proves very sufficiently that Christina was genuinely anxious to do what in her lay to raise the standard of learning in Sweden, and worked hard to that end; was it her fault if she effected but little? Her attempts, though productive of small results, have nothing whatever in common with the empty self-regarding patronage and posing of Louis XIV.; she never tried to display her learning, though it was said of her that she was the only learned man in Sweden: she never set any store by the flattery that was poured on her, and though the tendency of the age was to venerate learning too much in and for itself, she could despise pedantry without ceasing to respect knowledge. At a time when all the European states were engaged in revolutionary struggles or unprofitable wars, she was trying hard to improve her own in the arts of peace, which she not only gained, but preserved for Sweden, by her energy and persevering tact. And yet when she abdicated she was only twenty-eight [sic]! If we except Cromwell, what contemporary sovereign, or minister, is worthy to stand beside her? We may candidly allow her one great defect, her extravagance, but it would be well for the world if it had always had rulers like Christina.


Above: Kristina.

Notes: Dorpat is the old German and Swedish name for the Estonian city of Tartu.

Åbo is the Swedish name for the Finnish city of Turku, in the Southwest Finland/Finland Proper region.

Gaulmin = Gilbert Gaulmin (1585-1665), a French magistrate, scholar and Orientalist.

Maussac = Philippe Jacques de Maussac (1590-1650), a French publisher.

anon = soon; in a little while; at another time.

Janua Linguarum reserrata had been one of Kristina's Latin schoolbooks as of February 1638, two months after she turned eleven; perhaps the memories of reading and studying it with Johannes Matthiæ inspired Kristina to bring its author to Sweden to reform the schools in its image.

The word "Lapp" is an antiquated and now offensive term for the indigenous Sámi people. To not acknowledge offensive language towards peoples is to ignore it and deny its offensive qualities. The Sámi live in the north of Sweden as well as in the north of Norway, Finland and the Kola Peninsula of Russia, although in the distant past their range in Norway and Sweden might have extended further south. They are distantly related to the Finns, the Estonians, the Hungarians and the various Balto-Finnic, Finno-Ugric and Uralic peoples of Latvia, Russia and Siberia.

dumb = mute.

aver = to assert the truth of something, to affirm something with confidence; to declare something in a positive manner.

Olmütz is the German name for the city of Olomouc in what is now the Olomouc Region of the Czech Republic.

Monday, December 30, 2024

Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert's review of the first two volumes of Arckenholtz's biography of Kristina, year 1753, part 2

Sources:

Mélanges de littérature, d'histoire et de philosophie, pages 20 to 29, by Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert, 1753; original at The British Library


Mélanges de littérature, d'histoire et de philosophie, pages 244 to 253, by Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert, 1759 edition of the above; original at the New York Public Library


The account:

L'amour de Christine pour la liberté lui fit refuser tous les partis qui se présentoient pour elle, quoique plusieurs fussent très-avantageux, & que la Suéde la pressât de se marier. Le Roi d'Espagne Philippe IV, un de ceux qui aspiroient à épouser la Reine, s'en désista bientôt, dans la crainte de se voir obligé par cette alliance à ne plus traiter les Protestans d'hérétiques. Celui de tous les prétendans qui parut le plus empressé, étoit Charles Gustave, cousin de Christine, Prince Palatin, à qui elle avoit été destinée dès l'enfance; elle fut aussi sourde pour lui que pour ses rivaux. Cependant, soit qu'il lui inspirât moins de dégoût, soit qu'elle méditât dès lors le dessein d'abdiquer le Trône, elle réussit à le faire déclarer par les États son successeur. Par cette démarche elle vint à but, & de se conserver libre, & d'assurer le repos de la Suéde, & de prévenir aussi l'ambition de quelques Maisons Suédoises qui auroient pu après sa mort disputer la Couronne. On assigna à Charles Gustave un certain revenu pour l'entretien de sa Cour. Mais la Reine dit que c'étoit un secret de la famille royale de ne donner aucune terre à un Prince héréditaire; secret qui ne mérite guere ce nom, & que les Prince despotiques les plus bornés auront toujours pour maxime. Christine, par le même motif, éloigna toujours des affaires le Prince Charles Gustave, pendant qu'elle gouverna la Suéde: quoiqu'elle aimât peu le Trône, son génie indépendant ne vouloit rien qui la gênât, tant qu'il lui plairoit de l'occuper.

Ce fut dans ces tems-là qu'arriverent les troubles de la France, la guerre de la fronde, cette guerre plus fameuse par le ridicule qui la couvrit que par les maux qu'elle pensa entraîner après elle, l'exil de Mazarin, son retour, son nouvel exil, l'emprisonnement des Princes, les assemblées bruyantes du Parlement, qui tumultueux alors, & depuis citoyen, rendoit les Arrêts pendant qu'on donnoit des batailles, & décretoit des armées de prise de corps. L'amour de Christine pour la tranquillité, la crainte que cette guerre civile ne fût l'occasion d'une nouvelle guerre au dehors, & peut-être le goût qu'elle avoit toujours conservé pour le Prince de Condé, l'engagerent à prendre part à ces troubles; elle écrivit à la Reine Anne d'Autriche, au Duc d'Orléans, aux Princes, au Parlement même, des lettres qui n'eurent d'autre effet que d'attirer à son Résident des plaintes de la Cour de France, & des réprimandes de sa part, quoiqu'il n'eût fait que suivre ses ordres. Ces troubles, qui avoient commencé sans elle, finirent bientôt sans sa médiation. Le Parlement qui avoit été sur le point de traiter avec cette Princesse, fut exilé à Pontoise, & trop heureux d'en revenir pour complimenter, quelques années après, ce même Cardinal dont il avoit mis la tête à prix. Le Prince de Condé fugitif chez les Espagnols, perdit tout excepté sa gloire; & Mazarin resta maître, jusqu'à sa mort, de la Reine, du Roi & de l'État.

L'amour que Christine avoit ou affectoit pour les hommes illustres, lui fit souhaiter d'attirer auprès d'elle le célebre Descartes, le restaurateur de la Philosophie, ignoré en France sa patrie, pour avoir été plus occupé des Sciences que de sa fortune, mis à l'index à Rome pour avoir cru sur le mouvement de la terre les observations astronomiques plutôt que les Bulles des Papes, & persécuté en Hollande pour avoir substitué au jargon des Scholastiques la vraie méthode de philosopher. Christine, charmée de quelques écrits de ce grand homme, lui avoit fait proposer plusieurs de ces questions de morale que les Philosophes agitent depuis long-tems, sans qu'elles soient décidées, & sans que les hommes en soient meilleurs & plus heureux. Telle étoit entr'autres celle du souverain bien, que Descartes faisoit consister dans le bon usage de notre volonté; par la raison, disoit-il, que les biens du corps & de la fortune, & même nos connoissances, ne dépendent pas de nous; comme si le bon usage de notre volonté étoit moins soumis que le reste à l'Être tout-puissant. Cette solution, toute insuffisante qu'elle étoit, plut assez à Christine pour qu'elle souhaitât ardemment d'en voir l'Auteur, comme un homme qu'elle croyoit heureux & dont elle envioit la condition. M. Chanut, Ambassadeur de France en Suéde, & ami du Philosophe, fut chargé de cette négociation, dans laquelle il eut d'abord de la peine à réussir. La différence des climats étoit une des raisons principales qui détournoit Descartes de ce voyage. Il écrivit à son ami: «qu'un homme né dans les jardins de la Touraine, & retiré dans une terre où il y avoit moins de miel, à la vérité, mais peut-être plus de lait que dans la terre promise aux Israélites, ne pouvoit pas aisément se résoudre à la quitter pour aller vivre au pays des ours, entre des rochers & des glaces.» Cette raison étoit très-suffisante pour un Sage, à qui la santé ne pouvoit être trop précieuse, parce que c'est un des biens qui ne dépendent point des autres hommes. Mais ne seroit-il pas permis de croire que Descartes, ami de la solitude comme il l'étoit, & voulant chercher à son aise la vérité, redoutoit un peu l'apprôche du Trône? Un Prince a beau être Philosophe, ou affecter de l'être, la Royauté forme en lui un caractere ineffaçable, toujours à craindre pour ceux qui l'approchent, & incommode pour la Philosophie, quelque soin que le Monarque prenne de la rassurer. Le Sage respecte les Princes, les estime quelquefois, & les fuit toujours. Nous sommes l'un pour l'autre un assez grand théatre, écrivoit Descartes à un Philosophe comme lui, qu'il exhortoit à venir partager sa retraite, dans le tems où Christine vouloit l'en faire sortir.

Cependant, comme l'amour même de la liberté ne résiste guere aux Rois quand ils insistent, Descartes se rendit bientôt après à Stockholm, dans la résolution, ainsi qu'il le disoit lui-même, de ne rien déguiser à cette Princesse de ses sentimens, ou de s'en retourner philosopher dans sa solitude. On voit par ses lettres qu'il fut très-satisfait de l'accueil que lui fit la Reine; elle le dispensa de tous les assujettisemens des Courtisans; mais ce fut pour lui en imposer d'autres qui dérangerent tout-à-fait sa maniere de vivre, & qui joints à la rigueur du climat, le conduisirent au tombeau au bout de quatre mois. Descartes trouvoit à Christine beaucoup d'esprit & de sagacité, néanmoins il paroît que le goût dominant du Philosophe fut toujours pour la malheureuse Princesse Palatine sa premiere disciple; soit que les malheurs qu'il avoit éprouvés lui-même redoublassent son attachement pour elle; soit qu'il lui trouvât plus de lumieres, ou de cette docilité qui est le premier hommage pour un Chef de secte. Cette préférence qu'il laissa apparemment entrevoir, causa à Christine un peu de jalousie.

Descartes, qui en renonçant à tout autre avantage, avoit conservé l'ambition des Philosophes, le desir de voir adopter exclusivement ses opinions & ses goûts, n'approuvoit point que Christine partageât son tems entre la Philosophie & l'étude des Langues. Il se trouvoit mal à son aise au milieu de cette foule d'érudits dont Christine étoit environnée, & qui faisoient dire aux étrangers que bientôt la Suéde alloit être gouvernée par des Grammairiens. Il osa même lui faire sur ce point des représentations assez libres & assez fortes pour se brouiller sans retour avec le Maître de Grec de la Reine, le savant Isaac Vossius, ce Théologien incrédule & superstitieux, de qui Charles II. Roi d'Angleterre disoit qu'il croyoit tout excepté la Bible. Les représentations de Descartes n'empêcherent pas la Reine d'apprendre le Grec, mais elles ne changerent rien aux sentimens qu'elle avoit pour lui. Elle prenoit sur son sommeil le tems qu'elle lui donnoit; elle voulut le faire Directeur d'une Académie qu'elle songeoit à établir; enfin elle lui marqua tant de considération qu'on prétendit que les Grammairiens de Stockholm avoient avancé par le poison la mort du Philosophe. Mais cette maniere de se défaire de ses ennemis, dit Sorbiere, est un honneur que les Gens de Lettres n'envient pas aux Grands.

Néanmoins quelque passionnée que Christine se soit montrée pour la Philosophie de Descartes, il n'y a nulle apparence, comme quelques-uns l'ont cru, qu'elle l'ait consulté sur les affaires politiques. Élevée, comme elle l'étoit, à la meilleure école de l'Europe en ce genre, c'est-à-dire, dans le Sénat de Suéde, quel secours auroit-elle pu tirer d'un Philosophe, qui par sa conduite en Hollande avoit montré combien peu il savoit traiter avec les hommes, & qu'une retraite de 30 ans avoit empêché de les connoître? On a même prétendu qu'elle montra aussi peu de zele pour les opinions de Descartes, qu'elle avoit témoigné d'estime pour sa personne; & que le fruit qu'elle retira de l'étude de la Philosophie, fut de se persuader qu'en ce genre les sottises anciennes valoient bien les nouvelles.

Swedish translation (my own):

Kristinas kärlek till frihet fick henne att avvisa alla friare som bjöd sig på henne, även om flera var mycket fördelaktiga, och Sverige uppmanade henne att gifta sig. Konungen av Spanien, Filip IV, en av dem som strävade efter att gifta sig med drottningen, drog sig snart tillbaka av rädsla för att se sig tvingad av denna allians att inte längre behandla protestanterna som kättare.

Den av alla friarna, som framstod som ivrigast, var Karl Gustav, Kristinas kusin, pfalzgreve, till vilken hon varit ämnad från barndomen; hon var lika döv för honom som för hans rivaler. Men oavsett om han väckte mindre avsky hos henne, eller om hon sedan dess mediterade dessängen att abdikera tronen, lyckades hon få honom att förklaras av ständerna som sin efterträdare. Genom detta steg kom hon till målet, dels för att bevara sig fri och försäkra sig om Sveriges fred, dels för att förhindra några svenska huss ärelystnad, som kunde ha bestridit Kronan efter hennes död.

En viss inkomst anslogs till Karl Gustav för underhållet av hans hov. Men drottningen sade att det var en hemlighet för konungafamiljen att inte ge någon jord till en arvfurste — en hemlighet som knappast förtjänar namnet, och som de mest begränsade despotiska furstarna alltid kommer att ha som maxim. Kristina höll av samma anledning alltid prins Karl Gustav borta från angelägenheter medan hon styrde Sverige: fastän hon älskade tronen litet, ville hennes självständiga geni ingenting som skulle störa henne så länge det behagade henne att ockupera den.

Det var vid denna tid som Frankrikes bekymmer anlände, kriget i Fronde, detta krig mer känt för det förlöjligande som täckte det än för det onda som det tänkte föra med sig efter det. Exilen av Mazarin, hans återkomst, hans nya exil, fängslandet av prinsarna, de bullriga församlingarna i Parlamentet, som tumultartade då, och sedan en civil, utfärdade dekreten medan man gav strider och dekreterade arméer för tillfångatagande av kårer.

Kristinas kärlek till lugnet, rädslan för att detta inbördeskrig skulle bli anledningen till ett nytt krig utomlands, och kanske smaken som hon alltid hade bevarat för prinsen de Condé, engagerade henne att delta i dessa problem. Hon skrev till drottning Anne av Österrike, till hertigen av Orléans, till prinsarna, till själva Parlamentet, brev som inte hade någon annan verkan än att locka till henne invånare klagomål från Frankrikes hov och tillrättavisningar från honom, även om han endast hade följt hennes order.

Dessa problem, som hade börjat utan henne, slutade snart utan hennes medling. Parlamentet, som hade varit på väg att behandla med denna prinsessa, förvisades till Pontoise och var alltför glad för att återvända för att några år senare komplimentera samma kardinal, vars huvud det hade satt ett pris på. Prinsen de Condé, en flykting bland spanjorerna, förlorade allt utom sin ära; och Mazarin förblev herre, fram till sin död, över drottningen, konungen och Staten.

Den kärlek som Kristina hade eller affekterade till berömda män fick henne att önska att locka till sig den berömde Descartes, filosofins återställare, som ignorerades i Frankrike, hans fädernesland, för att ha varit mer upptagen av vetenskapen än av sin lycka, sattes på indexet i Rom för att ha trott på jordens rörelser på astronomiska observationer snarare än påvarnas bullor, och förföljdes i Holland för att ha ersatt skolastikernas jargong med den sanna metoden att filosofera.

Kristina, förtrollad av en del skrifter av denne store man, hade fått honom att ställa flera av dessa moralfrågor som filosoferna länge har agiterat, utan att de blivit beslutade och utan att människorna är bättre eller gladare för det. Sådan var bland annat det suveräna godheten, som Descartes gjorde att bestå i att vår vilja användes väl; av den anledningen, sade han, att kroppens och lyckans godhet, ja till och med vår kunskap, inte är beroende av oss, som om vår viljas goda bruk var mindre underkastat det allsmäktiga Väsendet än resten.

Denna lösning, hur otillräcklig den än var, behagade Kristina tillräckligt för att få henne att ivrigt önska att se dess författare, som en man hon trodde var lycklig och vars tillstånd hon avundades. Monsieur Chanut, fransk ambassadör i Sverige och en vän till filosofen, anklagades för denna förhandling, i vilken han till en början hade svårt att lyckas.

Skillnaden i klimat var en av de främsta anledningarna som avskräckte Descartes från denna resa. Han skrev till sin vän »att en man född i Touraines trädgårdar och drog sig tillbaka till ett land där det i sanning fanns mindre honung, men kanske mer mjölk än i landet som utlovats till israeliterna, inte lätt kunde bestämma sig för att lämna det att gå och bo i björnarnas land, bland stenar och is.«

Detta skäl var mycket tillräckligt för en visman, för vilken hälsan inte kunde vara alltför värdefull eftersom den är en av de godheter som inte beror på andra människor. Men skulle det inte vara tillåtet att tro att Descartes, en vän av ensamhet som han var, och som ville söka sanningen i lugn och ro, fruktade lite för att tronen skulle närma sig?

En furste kan mycket väl vara en filosof, eller affektera att vara den. Kungligheten bildar i honom en outplånlig karaktär, alltid att frukta för dem som närmar sig den, och obekväm för filosofin, hur mycket omsorg monarken än tar för att lugna den. Vismannen respekterar furstar, aktar dem ibland och flyr alltid från dem. Vi är för varandra en ganska stor teater, skrev Descartes till en filosof som han själv, som han uppmanade att komma och dela sin reträtt i en tid då Kristina ville få honom att lämna den.

Men eftersom kärleken till friheten i sig knappast står emot konungar när de insisterar, begav sig Descartes strax därefter till Stockholm, med beslutet, som han själv sade, att inte dölja sina känslor för denna prinsessa eller att återvända till att filosofera i sin ensamhet. Vi ser av hans brev att han var mycket nöjd med det mottagande som drottningen gav honom. Hon befriade honom från hovmännens alla underkutanden, men det var för att påtvinga honom andra, som helt störde hans levnadssätt och som, tillfört klimatets hårdhet, ledde honom till graven efter fyra månaders slut.

Descartes fann i Kristina mycket kvickhet och klokhet; icke desto mindre verkar det som om filosofens dominerande smak alltid var för den olyckliga pfalzgrevinnan, hans första lärjunge, antingen att de olyckor som han själv hade upplevt fördubblade hans fäste för henne, antingen att han fann henne mer upplyst, eller den foglighet som är den första hyllningen till en ledare för en sekt. Denna preferens som han tydligen lät skymta orsakade Kristina lite avundsjuka.

Descartes, som, samtidigt som han avsade sig alla andra fördelar, hade behållit filosofernas ambition, önskan att se hans åsikter och smak uteslutande anammas, godkände inte att Kristina delade sin tid mellan filosofi och språkstudier. Han befann sig illa till mods mitt i denna skara av eruditer som Kristina var omgiven av och som fick utlänningar att säga att Sverige snart skulle styras av grammatiker. Han vågade till och med göra framställningar till henne på denna punkt, fri och stark nog att orsaka ett oåterkalleligt gräl med drottningens mästare i grekiska, den lärde Isaac Vossius, denne vantro och vidskeplige teolog, om vilken Karl II, konung av England, sade att han trodde på allt utom Bibeln. Descartes' representationer hindrade inte drottningen från att lära sig grekiska, men de förändrade inte de känslor hon hade för honom.

Hon tog från sin sömn den tid hon gav honom; hon ville göra honom till direktör för en akademi som hon tänkte inrätta. Slutligen visade hon honom så mycket hänsyn att det påstods att grammatikerna i Stockholm hade fört fram filosofens död med gift. Men detta sätt att bli av med sina fiender, säger Sorbière, är en ära som människor de lettres inte avundas de stora för.

Ändå, hur passionerad Kristina än var för Descartes' filosofi, verkar det inte som några har trott att hon rådfrågade honom i politiska angelägenheter. Uppfostrad, som hon var, i den bästa skolan i Europa i denna genre, det vill säga i Sveriges Råd, vilken hjälp kunde hon ha fått av en filosof som genom sitt uppträdande i Holland visat hur lite han visste hur man handskas med män, och som en pensionering på 30 år hade förhindrat att känna dem? Det har till och med hävdats att hon visade lika lite iver för Descartes' åsikter som hon hade visat aktning för hans person, och att frukten hon drog av filosofistudiet var att övertyga sig själv om att i denna genre var det gamla struntprat lika bra som det nya.

English translation (my own):

Kristina's love of liberty made her refuse all the matches that presented themselves for her, although several were very advantageous, and Sweden urged her to marry. The King of Spain, Philip IV, one of those who aspired to marry the Queen, soon withdrew, for fear of seeing himself obliged by this alliance to no longer treat the Protestants as heretics.

The one of all the suitors who appeared the most eager was Karl Gustav, Kristina's cousin, Prince Palatine, to whom she had been destined from childhood; she was as deaf to him as to his rivals. However, whether he inspired less disgust in her, or she was from then on meditating the design of abdicating the throne, she succeeded in having him declared by the Estates as her successor. By this step she came to the goal, both to preserve herself free and to assure the peace of Sweden, and also to prevent the ambition of some Swedish houses which might have disputed the Crown after her death.

A certain income was assigned to Karl Gustav for the maintenance of his court. But the Queen said that it was a secret of the royal family not to give any land to a hereditary prince — a secret which hardly deserves the name, and which the most limited despotic princes will always have as a maxim. Kristina, for the same reason, always kept Prince Karl Gustav away from affairs while she governed Sweden: although she loved the throne little, her independent genius wanted nothing that would bother her for as long as it pleased her to occupy it.

It was at this time that the troubles of France arrived, the war of the Fronde, this war more famous for the ridicule that covered it than for the evils that it thought to bring after it. The exile of Mazarin, his return, his new exile, the imprisonment of the princes, the noisy assemblies of the Parliament, which tumultuous then, and since a citizen, rendered the decrees while one gave battles, and decreed armies of capture of corps.

Kristina's love for tranquility, the fear that this civil war would be the occasion of a new war abroad, and perhaps the taste that she had always preserved for the Prince de Condé, engaged her to take part in these troubles. She wrote to Queen Anne of Austria, to the Duke of Orléans, to the princes, to the Parliament itself, letters which had no other effect than to attract to her resident complaints from the court of France and reprimands from him, although he had only followed her orders.

These troubles, which had begun without her, soon ended without her mediation. The Parliament, which had been on the point of treating with this princess, was exiled to Pontoise, and too happy to return to compliment, a few years later, this same Cardinal, whose head it had put a price on. The Prince de Condé, a fugitive among the Spaniards, lost everything except his glory; and Mazarin remained master, until his death, of the Queen, the King and the State.

The love that Kristina had or affected for illustrious men made her wish to attract to her the famous Descartes, the restorer of philosophy, who was ignored in France, his fatherland, for having been more occupied with the sciences than with his fortune, was put on the index in Rome for having believed on the movement of the Earth the astronomical observations rather than the bulls of the popes, and was persecuted in Holland for having substituted for the jargon of the scholastics the true method of philosophising.

Kristina, charmed by some writings of this great man, had made him propose several of these questions of morality that the philosophers have been agitating for a long time, without them being decided, and without men being better or happier for it. Such was among others that of the sovereign good, which Descartes made consist in the good use of our will; for the reason, he said, that the goods of the body and of fortune, and even our knowledge, do not depend on us, as if the good use of our will were less subject than the rest to the all-powerful Being.

This solution, however insufficient it was, pleased Kristina enough to make her ardently wish to see its author, as a man she believed to be happy and whose condition she envied. Monsieur Chanut, French ambassador to Sweden, and a friend of the philosopher, was charged with this negotiation, in which he at first had difficulty succeeding.

The difference in climates was one of the principal reasons which dissuaded Descartes from this journey. He wrote to his friend "that a man born in the gardens of Touraine, and retired to a land where there was less honey, in truth, but perhaps more milk than in the land promised to the Israelites, could not easily resolve to leave it to go and live in the land of bears, among rocks and ice."

This reason was very sufficient for a sage, to whom health could not be too precious because it is one of the goods which does not depend on other men. But would it not be permissible to believe that Descartes, a friend of solitude as he was, and wishing to seek the truth at his ease, feared a little the approach of the throne?

A prince may well be a philosopher, or affect to be one. Royalty forms in him an indelible character, always to be feared for those who approach it, and inconvenient for philosophy, however much care the monarch takes to reassure it. The sage respects princes, sometimes esteems them, and always flees from them. We are for each other a rather great theatre, wrote Descartes to a philosopher like himself, whom he exhorted to come and share his retreat at a time when Kristina wanted to make him leave it.

However, as the love of liberty itself hardly resists kings when they insist, Descartes soon afterwards went to Stockholm, with the resolution, as he himself said, of hiding nothing from this princess of his feelings, or of returning to philosophise in his solitude. We see from his letters that he was very satisfied with the reception the Queen gave him. She exempted him from all the subjugations of the courtiers, but it was to impose others on him which completely disturbed his way of life and which, added to the harshness of the climate, led him to the grave at the end of four months.

Descartes found in Kristina much wit and sagacity; nevertheless, it appears that the dominant taste of the philosopher was always for the unfortunate Princess Palatine, his first disciple, either that the misfortunes which he had experienced himself redoubled his attachment for her, either that he found her more enlightened, or that docility which is the first homage for a leader of a sect. This preference which he apparently let be glimpsed caused Kristina a little jealousy.

Descartes, who, while renouncing all other advantages, had retained the ambition of the philosophers, the desire to see his opinions and tastes exclusively adopted, did not approve of Kristina dividing her time between philosophy and the study of languages. He found himself ill at ease in the midst of this crowd of erudites with whom Kristina was surrounded, and who made foreigners say that Sweden would soon be governed by grammarians. He even dared to make representations to her on this point, free and strong enough to cause an irreversible quarrel with the Queen's master of Greek, the learned Isaac Vossius, this incredulous and superstitious theologian, of whom Charles II, King of England, said that he believed everything except the Bible. Descartes' representations did not prevent the Queen from learning Greek, but they did not change the feelings she had for him.

She took from her sleep the time she gave him; she wanted to make him director of an academy that she was thinking of establishing. Finally she showed him so much consideration that it was claimed that the grammarians of Stockholm had brought forward the philosopher's death by poison. But this way of getting rid of one's enemies, says Sorbière, is an honour which men of letters do not envy the great for.

Nevertheless, however passionate Kristina may have been for the philosophy of Descartes, there is no appearance, as some have believed, that she consulted him on political affairs. Brought up, as she was, in the best school in Europe in this genre, that is to say, in the Senate of Sweden, what help could she have drawn from a philosopher who, by his conduct in Holland, had shown how little he knew how to deal with men, and whom a retirement of 30 years had prevented from knowing them? It has even been claimed that she showed as little zeal for the opinions of Descartes as she had shown esteem for his person, and that the fruit she drew from the study of philosophy was to persuade herself that in this genre the old nonsense was as good as the new.


Above: Kristina.


Above: Johan Arckenholtz.


Above: Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert.