Showing posts with label Johan Oxenstierna. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Johan Oxenstierna. Show all posts

Saturday, November 15, 2025

Henry Woodhead on Kristina and Johan Adler Salvius vs. Johan Oxenstierna during the negotiations for the Peace of Westphalia

Source:

Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden, volume 1, pages 219 to 230, by Henry Woodhead, 1863; original at the University of Michigan


Kristina's letter of May 23/June 2 (Old Style), 1641 to Johan Kasimir is here:


Her letter of July 21/31 (Old Style), 1648 to Salvius is here:


Her letter of September 4/14 (Old Style), 1647 to him is here:


Her letter of April 10/20 (Old Style), 1647 to Oxenstierna and Salvius is here:


Her letter of April 10/20 (Old Style), 1647 to Salvius is here:


The account:

A princess of Christina's character could not be insensible to glory. The brilliant successes of the Swedish arms were calculated to gratify, and at the same time to excite her ambition.

Her most important public act, however, and the one for which she most deserves the admiration of posterity, was the personal and active part she took in bringing about the peace of Westphalia.

The Thirty Years' War now resembled a chronic malady, which no ordinary treatment could cure. The Swedish nobles were anxious to prolong a state from which they gained so much. The country had been so long at war that war appeared its natural condition. The internal administration was adapted to a state of hostility, and it was felt that a treaty of peace would be a sort of revolution. The aristocratic party had plausible reasons for the continuation of the war. Sweden was able[,] while it lasted[,] to keep a great army in a high state of efficiency, at the expense of other nations. This army was a protection against her jealous and threatening neighbours, Poland, Denmark, and Russia. The territory of Sweden was thus more secure than in time of peace. Her trade flourished to a certain degree by the depression of trade in other countries, and the Swedish statesmen were not enlightened enough to see that this prosperity was more apparent than real. The unavoidable expense was in a great measure defrayed by French subsidies, and much of the plunder of Germany passed directly into the hands of the Swedish nobles.

Although France gave substantial assistance to Sweden, the interests of the two countries were by no means identical. They were even in some points directly opposed. Oxenstiern had long foreseen that this would be the case, and he had refused to enter into a close alliance with France, until the first battle of Nördlingen convinced him that Sweden could not contend single-handed against Austria. Even after this he always remained very jealous of French influence.

Austria had been the chief sufferer in the war, but the people, by whom all the misery was endured, had no voice in the government. The Emperor and his Council did not wish to terminate the struggle before the wheel of fortune turned round and declared in their favour. They thought that in one fortunate campaign they might regain all they had lost. It is difficult to surmise how long the war might have lasted if it had not been for Christina.

Her exertions in bringing about a peace were becoming to a Christian woman, and deserved the gratitude of her contemporaries far more than the purest orthodoxy.

Her desire for peace was not confined to public professions. She wrote private letters to Salvius, her minister at the Congress, urging him again and again to turn all his thoughts towards peace. In one letter to him she said, "What I desire the most, and esteem above everything else, is the power of restoring peace to Christendom."

She was fully aware of the objections which were made to peace, and knew from whom the objections emanated. She hinted to Salvius that the Chancellor himself was one of her greatest opponents, but expressed her determination to carry her point.

Not the least of the obstacles to peace, was the rivalry and animosity which existed among the envoys themselves. The two Swedish plenipotentiaries were John Oxenstiern, a son of the Chancellor's, and Salvius. The latter owed his appointment only to his ability; he was the son of a citizen at Stre[n]gnäs, and for some time had studied medicine, but afterwards obtained a subordinate post under the government; his talent soon attracted the notice of Oxenstiern, and of Gustavus Adolphus, who entrusted him with important duties and raised him to the rank of a nobleman. Christina said he was so clever in diplomacy, that he made every one do just what he wanted. A less partial account said that[,] although slow, he possessed great knowledge of business, and knew well how to hide his own opinion whilst he found out the opinion of others. John Oxenstiern was also experienced in business, but had so little capacity that any one could see directly through his plans; he was, besides, both obstinate and vehement.

The sagacity of Christina easily told her what dissensions would ensue from the association of two men who possessed such different characters. Three years before she assumed the management of affairs, and when she was only fifteen years old, she wrote to the Prince Palatine that Salvius was labouring to bring about a peace, but that the Chancellor was not sincere in the same cause. She added, that "John Oxenstiern was about to proceed to the Congress, but that he was not likely to agree with Salvius."

The two ministers not only represented opposite opinions and interests, but they appear to have been animated by a mutual antipathy of old standing. When Salvius was minister at Hamburg, he told John Oxenstiern, then at Stralsund, that he ought not to address Grotius, the minister at Paris, without giving him the title of Excellency. This was probably an indirect way of reminding John Oxenstiern, that Salvius himself had a right to the title of Excellency. Instead of apologizing for his want of courtesy, Oxenstiern sent a rude answer, "that he did not want to receive any lessons."

The colleagues could hardly have worked well together, even if they had had the same objects. Notwithstanding his haughty and overbearing manner, John Oxenstiern was to a certain degree aware of his own incapacity to manage the weighty affairs which were entrusted to him. Soon after his arrival at Osnaburg, he wrote to his father, and begged that he might be removed to some less difficult post.

The old Chancellor's answer contained an expression which has often been quoted to reassure diffidence: "Are you ignorant, my son, of the small amount of ability with which this world is managed?"

The Chancellor at first reproved his son for his overbearing assumption of the title of "head of the legation", and told him that Salvius and himself were associates, with equal power and authority. "I am sorry, my son", he added, "that you do not show more greatness of mind than to be disturbed about such trifles. If every one would consider that other people's feelings are the same as his own, there would not be so many quarrels in the world."

John Oxenstiern at the same time received a reprimand from his father, "for writing such long letters to the Queen about nothing at all."

This lecture had the effect of suspending the quarrels of the two envoys for a little while, but they began again in 1646, and the decided preference which Christina showed for Salvius, increased still more the jealousy of Oxenstiern. Their differences were no longer confined to trifles, for they pursued different lines of policy, and the Chancellor now supported his son in the Council, although he still blamed his petulant expressions.

In 1647 he wrote, "Dear son, I am sorry to see you do not know how to manage your pen in corresponding with the Queen. You are not content to let things speak for themselves, but you show your ill-humour in vehement words, which prove that you have no control over yourself, although they do not injure your enemy."

No opposition could alter Christina's determination to make peace. This resolution appears in a letter of hers to Salvius, dated September, 1647, where she also proved that she was not so much the dupe of the French as some of her ministers supposed. "I perceive", she said, "that the treaty of peace is much in the same condition as if it was abandoned, and that every one is expecting the result of the campaign. Nevertheless, I trust that on your part you will use every possible effort to complete this work, which may the Almighty in His mercy prosper. I enclose a letter for Mr. Servian (the French envoy); send it him immediately. I should be very uncourteous not to respond to his civility, since he has offered to serve me. I must be polite to him, and assure him of my favour, because, as you know, he is the creature of the Cardinal. I am, however, well acquainted with French manners, and know that they consist chiefly in compliments — still one can lose nothing by civility, and it is best to pay them in their own coin. The compliments which they and others pay me, are mere flattery, which I do not deserve, but I think it best to return civility for civility. Express to them the affection I feel for the Queen and for the Cardinal. It is he who governs everything, and for that reason you must make much of his creatures."

Oxenstiern and his party demanded conditions which even France, the ally of Sweden, thought unreasonable. Among other things, they insisted that the whole of Pomerania should be ceded to Sweden. The Elector of Brandenburg would have suffered by this, but he was not at all inclined to submit. If the moderate counsels of Christina had not prevailed, France would have been alienated, and Brandenburg would soon have been on the side of Austria. Chanut, in obedience to his orders, made complaints of John Oxenstiern's impracticability, and it seemed likely the negotiations would be indefinitely prolonged. Christina wrote a sharp letter to her ministers in April, 1647, which was, however, really only intended for one of them. She said, "I add these few words to my official letter, only to express my fear that the much desired treaty, of which I have been expecting the happy conclusion, may be delayed for reasons which I do not understand. In order that you may be thoroughly informed of my will, be assured that I desire, above everything in the world, a safe and honourable peace. ..... If this is not settled, you must consider how you will answer for it before God, before the States of the kingdom, and before me. Do not be diverted from this object by the schemes of ambitious persons, unless you are prepared to suffer disgrace, and to encounter my indignation. You may depend upon it that no support of great families will prevent me from showing my displeasure before all the world. I am convinced that if the treaty is not concluded, I should be involved[,] by your fault[,] in a labyrinth from which you could never extricate me, and I therefore warn you to take care of yourselves."

She wrote at the same time a private letter to Salvius, in which she told him explicitly that the reprimand was not intended for him, but for John Oxenstiern. "She knew", she said, "that a certain party was trying to protract the negotiations indefinitely, but she would let the world see that the Chancellor was not able to overturn everything with his finger."

She expressed her confidence that Salvius would do everything in his power to promote the peace; and she added, "If God grants that you return home with the treaty, I will reward your services with the rank of senator; you know yourself that it is the highest dignity to which an honest man can aspire in our country; if there were any higher degrees of honour, I would raise you to them. You will have to encounter the malice of the envious, but you may say with Marius, 'Contemnunt novitatem meam, ego illorum ignaviam: mihi fortuna, iis probra objectantur.'"

Notwithstanding the gravity of her style in this letter, she showed something of the fun and malice of a young lady of twenty in the postscript, where she particularly desired to be informed what grimaces young Oxenstiern made when he read her reprimand.


Above: Kristina.


Above: Axel Oxenstierna.


Above: Johan Oxenstierna.


Above: Johan Adler Salvius.

Sunday, August 31, 2025

Anonymous biography of Kristina in "Eccentric Biography; or, Memoirs of Remarkable Female Characters, Ancient and Modern", year 1803, part 4

Source:

Eccentric Biography; or, Memoirs of Remarkable Female Characters, Ancient and Modern, pages 90 to 91, by anonymous author, 1803; original at The British Library


The biography:

... One of the great affairs that employed Christina, while she was upon the throne, was the peace of Westphalia. She had sent two plenipotentiaries to the congress; one was Oxenstiern, whose father, the grand chancellor, had been justly honoured with the entire confidence of the great Gustavus, and who had governed Sweden with an authority almost absolute, during the minority of Christina, who soon began to be weary of his yoke, which was by no means easy or light; the other was Salvius, lord privy seal, who alone had the queen's confidence, and was led into the secret purposes of her mind. He pushed on the peace with all his power, according to the queen's desire; but Oxenstiern, on the contrary, who knew that peace would diminish the importance of his family, threw a thousand difficulties in the way; the peace, however, so much desired and so necessary, in which so many clashing interests were reconciled, and so many claims ascertained, was at last concluded in the month of October, 1648. The success of the Swedish arms rendered Christina the arbitress of this treaty, at least as to the affairs of Sweden, to which this peace confirmed the possession of many important countries. Christina, at the conclusion of this important affair, rewarded Salvius by raising him to the rank of senator, a dignity which till then had always been the prerogative of birth, but which Christina thought she had a right to confer upon merit. No public event of importance took place during the rest of Christina's reign, for there were neither wars abroad, nor troubles at home. This quiet might be the effect of chance, but it might also be the effect of a good administration, and the great reputation of the queen; and the love her people had for her ought to lead us to this determination. ...


Above: Kristina.


Above: Johan Oxenstierna.


Above: Johan Adler Salvius.

Wednesday, July 30, 2025

Francis William Bain on Kristina's opposition to Axel Oxenstierna and on the negotiations for the Peace of Westphalia and Kristina's favour for Johan Adler Salvius

Source:

Christina, Queen of Sweden, pages 66 to 76, by Francis William Bain, 1890; original at the University of Connecticut Library


Kristina's letter of December 12/22 (Old Style), 1646 to Johan Adler Salvius is here:


Her letter of February 13/23 (Old Style), 1647 to him is here:


Her undated letter written to him sometime in 1647 is here:


Her letter of September 4/14 (Old Style), 1647 to him is here:


Her letter of April 10/20 (Old Style), 1647 to Oxenstierna and Salvius is here:


Her letter of April 10/20 (Old Style), 1647 to Salvius is here:


Her letter of July 6/16 (Old Style), 1647 to Salvius is here:


Her letter of November 27/December 7 (Old Style), 1647 to Salvius is here:


Her letter of July 21/31 (Old Style), 1648 to Salvius is here:


The account:

By means such as these [sending Count Magnus as ambassador to France] did the Queen endeavour to pave the way towards peace and form a party in opposition to the Chancellor. To the various motives determining her dislike of him must be added her close connection with the Palatine house, which the Oxenstiern party viewed with suspicion and dislike as a foreign element. Further reports had got about of an intended marriage between her and his son Eric — with how much truth we cannot determine. The Chancellor, however, wrote a long letter to his son, recommending him to still the disadvantageous rumour by marrying something else.

The course of the negotiations for peace still further widened the breach. The plenipotentiaries for Sweden were John Oxenstiern, son of the Chancellor, and Adler Salvius. The former, a stiff, pig-headed man, full of his own importance, yet distrusting his own capacity, and devoid of diplomatic skill, was a creature of his father's, and at daggers drawn with his partner Salvius. The latter, his complete antithesis alike in character and policy, was devoted to the Queen, who, with her usual keen insight into character, had recognised in him an instrument well suited to her ends. The son of a citizen of Strengnäs, he had raised himself by his abilities to a high position under Gustavus and Oxenstiern; his diplomatic talents and knowledge of the world were great, and he had a supple capacity of "working all men to the desire end", as Christina describes it.

Between the two delegates there was bitter hostility. The arrogance of Oxenstiern offended Salvius, who, relying on the support of the Queen, despised him, and set him at naught. Of this difference Christina was well aware and made use. John Oxenstiern was quite unable to cope with his delicate position, and knew this himself. He even endeavoured to shirk the duty altogether, pleading inability; the old Chancellor's reply has become a proverb: "An nescis, mi fili, quantillâ prudentiâ regitur orbis?" And during the course of the proceedings he had repeatedly to reprove his son for his small-mindedness in attaching importance to little things, his want of tact in writing to the Queen, his impolitic loss of temper. The division in the Swedish camp was not unknown to the French. "The Swedish counsels are not so united as they are supposed to be", wrote the French ambassador; "the split comes from above." The French plenipotentiaries were no better; D'Avaux and Servien were at open enmity. The Duc de Longueville had to be despatched to preserve concord between them. With this condition of affairs, the main business did not get along; peace was not the matter, but following and party.

Even without all these personal animosities[,] it would have been no easy matter to adjust the difficult complications and rival claims of the various parties. The recent victories of Torstenson and Condé enabled the Swedes to take a high tone; they demanded principally Pomerania, Camin, Wismar, Bremen, Verden, and Silesia, and twenty million thalers for the army. France required above all Alsace. But these demands were scouted. Brandenburgh refused to let Pomerania go; the Emperor would not hear of giving up Alsace, and contented himself with trying to sow dissension among the rival claimants. Additional difficulty was caused by Bavaria. The Swedes hated Bavaria, even more than they hated the Emperor, and refused to allow its neutrality; Mazarin, on the other hand, was not inclined to press Bavaria hard. The French were distrusted, as not acting for the general good, and in fact, were not zealous for the preponderance of Sweden in the north, or the Protestant interest. (In the instructions sent to the French delegates in 1646 we read: "The pretensions of the Swedes are exorbitant and cause the Queen great pain, because she sees that they tend to raise the Protestant party by lowering the Catholics"; whereas Oxenstiern laid stress on the religious point of freedom for the Estates.) Further negotiations resulted in the ultimatum of the Swedes; for Pomerania, Rügen, Wollin, and Stettin, and some other places.

Throughout the transactions, the Chancellor and his party were haughty and unyielding, hating and hated by the French. "With you, I see", wrote Oxenstiern to his son, "the treaty of peace slumbers, and is pursued with hardly any other mind than pro forma." The Queen on the other hand, in the face of such obstacles, did not despair; aided by Chanut and Salvius[,] she worked hard to make friends of the French, and bring matters to a conclusion. She corresponded personally with D'Avaux and Servien, Louis XIV, and his mother; chiefly to her exertions was it due that France made common cause with Sweden against Bavaria, and supported her in her claims for satisfying the army.

Her letters to Salvius during the period throw a strong light on her policy and character. In December, 1646, she writes:

"I thank you for the trouble you take in conducting this great matter to a successful conclusion, and your communication: I beg you not to grow weary, but continue in the zeal you have manifested till now in my service and that of the kingdom. In return I assure you that though many should attempt, perchance, to blacken you here, I will permit none of them to do you wrong in any respect; on the contrary, should you by the grace of God return in good health and successful, I will let you know by solid results that I am and remain always disposed to favour you.
"CHRISTINA."

February, 1647. — "I have received two letters from you which have pleased me greatly. I have not time to answer them as they deserve; accordingly, I beg you to thank M. D'Avaux for the essential service he has done me, and make my very particular excuses to him for not being able to write to him to-day. I have so much to do just now, that time is not sufficient for all my business. I hope he will never doubt my gratitude. I will not fail to thank him by the first courier. As to the Treaty of Peace, I have declared to both of you my opinion and my determination. Push matters on as best you can. I expect to have plenty to attend to here, so much so that I shall thank God if I am able to obtain, by hook or by crook, a good peace. You know better than me, quam arduum quamque subjectum fortunæ regendi cuncta onus! Nothing more at present; only this, please give me your advice as to whether I can, without prejudice to myself, gratify Count Magnus with Benfeld .. don't tell anyone about this, but let M. D'Avaux know it, sub fide silentii; and don't say anything about it to the Graf Gustafson [i.e., Oxenstiern].'

In another letter (without date) she begs him to see to a particular matter, also touched on in the first, the borrowing of a hundred thousand crowns by Count Magnus, which, in the present state of the finances and the army may be seized on by malicious persons eager "nova imperia reddere odiosa"; she wishes everyone to know it was done by her express command; should Salvius perform his duties satisfactorily, there is no position in the Senate, however high, to which he may not aspire.

4th Sept., 1647. — "I see that the Treaty is in the same condition as if it has stopped, and that everybody is waiting for the end, nevertheless I hope that on your side you will use your utmost diligence to conduct this long business, which may the Almighty graciously accord. ... I enclose a letter for M. Servien, send it to him as soon as possible: civility compels me to answer his letter, otherwise I should be the rudest person in the world, since he offers himself so cordially to my service, and speaks too much in my favour in his quarter; thus it behoves me to assure him of my good will and keep up a good correspondence with him, for you must recollect he is a creature of the Cardinal. I know, too, the French ways, and that their manners consist chiefly in compliments; but one loses nothing by being civil, and one pays them in their own coin. The compliments that they and others make me are pure flattery, I do not deserve such praises; nevertheless I find myself obliged to return their civilities in kind, therefore be courteous to him and others; bear witness of my affection for the Queen, as well as for the Cardinal, for he it is that governs all, that is why you must faire bonne mine to his creatures. Please get me a copy of the enclosed, as I have none here."

The peace, nevertheless, still dragged its weary length along. On 10th April, 1647, Christina sent the following final manifesto to the two colleagues, enclosing at the same time a private letter to Salvius, whereby it is obvious that the angry displeasure of the first was meant for John Oxenstiern alone.

10th April, 1647. — "Gentlemen: I add these few words to my public despatch, to discover to you with my own hand the fear I entertain lest this treaty, so earnestly desired, and for whose happy conclusion we have till now had reason to hope, should be arrested by causes not yet sufficiently well known to me. Therefore, to let you perfectly understand my will, you must thoroughly persuade yourselves that before all things I desire a sure and honourable peace. And since the satisfactio coronæ is already determined, and there remain only those of the soldiers and the gravamina of the Estates of the Empire, I will that you keep matters in good course till Erskein arrives and communicates to you his commission. Then[,] without any further dawdling[,] you must bring the negociations to a satisfactory conclusion by securing the best condition of the Estates, satisfaction of the Crown, and contentment of the soldiery that may be possible without breaking the peace — and no longer drag matters out as at present; otherwise, you will have to look to it how you will answer it before God, the Estates of the realm and me. Let not the phantasies of ambitious men turn you from your goal, unless you wish to incur my extreme disgrace and displeasure, and stand accountable to me blushing and blanching: you may be sure that in that case, no authority nor support of great houses shall hinder me from showing all the world the displeasure I feel at insensate procedure. I am convinced that if things go ill with the Treaty your errors will have placed me in a labyrinth, whence neither you, nor the brains of those who foment such plans, will ever draw me. Therefore it behoves you to look well to yourselves", &c.

The letter to Salvius alone was as follows: —

"From all circumstances, I see how a certain person, not being able entirely to break the Treaty, seeks to put it off. ... I will let all the world see that the C— cannot turn the whole world round his finger, sapienti sat. ... My letter herewith is addressed to both of you, give it immediately to G. J. O.; though I attack him and you equally in it, 'tis meant for him alone — let D'Avaux know the contents, that the French may not think ill of me, but see who is to blame. ... If by God's grace you come back here after the Peace, I will reward you Senatoriâ dignitate. You know it is in our country the highest honour to which an honest man can aspire — were there any higher gradus honoris I would not stick at conferring them upon you. But though that cannot be without drawing on you many envious persons, you can say with Marius in Sallust — 'contemnunt novitatem meam, ego illorum ignaviam, mihi fortuna, illis probra objectantur'. ... as to Count Gustafson, look to it well what you let him know — 'nec res magnæ sustineri possunt ob eo, cui tacere grave est.'

"P. S. — Mind you let me know what grimaces G. J. O. makes, on reading my letter to both of you."

This letter deeply wounded the Oxenstierns. The Chancellor requested leave to retire from Sweden; the Queen granted it immediately, but the remonstrances of the Senate, and the representations of Jacob de la Gardie, added to her own indulgent respect for her old master, changed her mind; she begged him not to quit her service, and the wound was outwardly healed, though Oxenstiern's power and influence over her were gone for ever. On his part, John Oxenstiern wrote her two letters, giving vent to the deep mortification he felt at the slight put upon him, and his rancour against Salvius. For him, however, the Queen had no pity, and wrote shortly afterwards to Salvius, saying, "I enclose a copy of G. J. O.'s letter to me, you can judge thereby of his feelings to yourself. Do not be disconcerted, however, as I am more than pleased with you."

Again on November 27, 1647, she writes, "The Ch—r fait fort le souple, sed quidquid id est timeo Danaos et dona ferentes. I observe every day in him what Tacitus says of Tiberius, 'jam Tiberium corpus, jam vires, nondum dissimulatio deserebat, sed dabit deus his quoque finem.' Yet far be it from me to wish him ill."

At length in July, 1648, it seemed as if the peace was really at hand; the Queen writes to Salvius:

21st July, 1648. — "I cannot express to you the joy your pleasant news gave me.... what I desire most of all and place above everything is to give peace to Christendom. When the instrumentum pacis is drawn up, you will bring it yourself. ... If God grants us peace[,] I hope to compass all my desires, then we shall see some long faces here, and may say, victrix causa Deis placuit, sed victa Catoni: a word to the wise."


Above: Kristina.


Above: Axel Oxenstierna.


Above: Johan Oxenstierna.


Above: Johan Adler Salvius.

Note: Cammin is a village and former municipality in the Mecklenburgische Seenplatte district in what is now the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. Since May 25, 2014 it has been part of the town Burg Stargard.

Wollin is the German name for the Polish island of Wolin and a town on it, in the Baltic Sea.

Stettin is the German name for the town of Szczecin in what is now the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland.

Saturday, July 19, 2025

Jacques Lacombe on Kristina and Johan Adler Salvius and how she backed him up and supported him in his rivalry with Johan Oxenstierna during the negotiations for the Peace of Westphalia

Source:

Histoire de Christine, reine de Suede, pages 92 to 94, by Jacques Lacombe, 1762; original at Oxford University


Kristina's letter of April 10/20 (Old Style), 1647 to Salvius is here:


The account:

Christine avoit encore élevé dans la plus haute faveur Adler Salvius, né de parens fort pauvres, mais qui avoit montré, dès sa jeunesse, beaucoup de talent pour la Politique, & de génie pour l'administration. Salvius étoit Chancelier de la Cour; ce fut lui que la Reine nomma pour son second Ambassadeur au Congrès de la Paix, & qu'elle opposa à Jean Oxenstiern, fils du Grand Chancelier, & à cette famille puissante, qui vouloit dominer & trop se prévaloir de ses services passés. Elle écrivit à Salvius: «Je vous exhorte à tenir la bride haute à ce cheval rétif, de peur qu'il ne saute par-dessus le timon.» Ces Ministres, rivaux de fortune, ne pouvoient point s'accorder. Salvius, suivant les intentions de la Reine, pressoit la Paix: Oxenstiern au contraire faisoit naître mille difficultés; il pressentoit que son crédit finiroit avec la guerre. Christine, jalouse de gouverner par elle-même, affectoit d'humilier ceux qui avoient au jusqu'alors le plus d'influence dans les affaires, & donnoit sa confiance à de nouveaux Ministres, ses créatures, qu'elle étoit bien aise de trouver dociles à toutes ses volontés. Les intentions secrettes, que cette jeune Reine traçoit elle-même dans ses lettres à Salvius, annoncent un esprit fin & un caractere ferme & indépendant, qui se développerent de plus en plus dans tout le cours de sa vie.

Swedish translation (my own; I cannot find any digitisation of the 1765 Swedish translation by Erik Ekholm):

Kristina hade också upphöjt Adler Salvius i högsta gunst, född av mycket fattiga föräldrar, men som från sin ungdom hade visat stor talang för politik och geni för administration. Salvius var hovkansler; det var honom som drottningen utsåg till sin andre ambassadör vid fredskongressen och som hon ställde mot Johan Oxenstierna, son till Rikskanslern, och mot den mäktiga familj som ville dominera och utnyttja dess tidigare tjänster i alltför hög grad. Hon skrev till Salvius:

»Jag uppmanar Er att hålla tyglarna hårt på denna oroliga häst, så att han inte hoppar över skakeln.«

Dessa ministrar, rivaler i lycka, kunde inte enas. Salvius, som följde drottningens avsikter, pressade på för fred. Oxenstierna, däremot, skapade tusen svårigheter; han anade att hans rykte skulle ta slut med kriget. Kristina, nitisk att styra ensam, försökte förödmjuka dem som dittills haft mest inflytande i angelägenheterna, och hon gav sitt förtroende till nya ministrar, sina kreaturer, som hon med glädje fann fogliga för alla hennes önskningar. De hemliga avsikter som denna unga drottning själv spårade i sina brev till Salvius vittnar om ett fint sinne och en fast och självständig karaktär som utvecklades mer och mer under hennes liv.

English translation (my own):

Kristina had also raised in the highest favour Adler Salvius, born of very poor parents, but who had shown from his youth much talent for politics and genius for administration. Salvius was court chancellor; it was he whom the Queen named as her second ambassador to the peace congress and whom she opposed to Johan Oxenstierna, son of the Grand Chancellor, and to that powerful family which wanted to dominate and take too much advantage of its past services. She wrote to Salvius:

"I exhort you to keep the reins tight on this restive horse, lest he jump over the pole."

These ministers, rivals in fortune, could not agree. Salvius, following the Queen's intentions, pressed for peace. Oxenstierna, on the contrary, created a thousand difficulties; he sensed that his credit would end with the war. Kristina, jealous to governing by herself, affected to humiliate those who until then had the most influence in affairs, and she gave her confidence to new ministers, her creatures, whom she was very pleased to find docile to all her wishes. The secret intentions which this young Queen herself traced in her letters to Salvius announce a fine mind and a firm and independent character, which developed more and more throughout the course of her life.


Above: Kristina.


Above: Johan Oxenstierna.


Above: Johan Adler Salvius.

Friday, July 18, 2025

Jean Catteau-Calleville on Kristina making Johan Adler Salvius a senator and on his role in the peace negotiations

Sources:

Histoire de Christine, reine de Suède, volume 1, pages 243 to 245, by Jean Catteau-Calleville, 1815; original at the National Library of Naples (Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele III)


Drottning Christinas historia, pages 105 to 107, by Jean Catteau-Calleville, translated by unknown translator, 1821; original at the Library of Congress


Kristina's letter of April 10/20 (Old Style), 1647 to Salvius is here:


The account:

Pour aiguillonner le zèle de Salvius, et pour donner à cet ambassadeur plus de poids dans les négociations, au moment où il s'agissait d'y mettre la dernière main, la reine le nomma sénateur de Suède. Elle lui avait déjà promis de le revêtir de cette charge, et dans la lettre qu'elle lui écrivit à ce sujet, se trouvaient ces mots: «Cela ne pourra se faire sans vous attirer beaucoup d'envieux; mais vous pourrez répondre comme Marius, dans Salluste: Ils méprisent mon obscurité, et moi leur indolence; et si l'on me reproche ma fortune, on peut leur reprocher leurs vices». Lorsqu'elle fit la nomination dans le sénat, elle s'expliqua en ces termes: «Dans les occasions où l'état a besoin de sages conseils et de bons avis, il ne faut pas s'informer des seize quartiers, mais de ce qu'on est en état de faire. Adler Salvius serait sans doute généralement regardé comme un homme capable, s'il était de grande famille. Cependant il peut compter comme une avantage qu'on n'ait que ce reproche à lui faire. Il importe d'avoir des hommes capables. Si les enfans des grandes maisons ont de la capacité, ils feront fortune comme les autres, sans que cependant il faille se restreindre à un petit nombre de familles ou de personnes». Peu après, Salvius, voyant que toutes les difficultés étaient aplanies, demanda de pouvoir retourner en Suède, et remit à son collègue, Jean Oxenstiern, le soin de terminer le traité. Il mourut quelques années après son retour. Ceux qui avaient pu observer de près sa conduite au congrès, jugèrent qu'il avait mis dans les négociations plus de finesse et de dextérité que de fermeté et de profondeur; qu'il s'était laissé entraîner à des soupçons injustes par un caractère ombrageux, et que, malgré ses défiances, il avait été plus d'une fois assez facile à séduire ou à gagner. Quelques mémoires rapportent qu'ayant fait beaucoup de difficultés sur un point relatif aux indemnités de l'électeur de Brandebourg, il céda lorsqu'on lui eut offert vingt mille écus, et en demandant qu'il en fût donné à peu près autant à son collègue. Les ambassadeurs des autres puissances aimaient mieux traiter avec Jean Oxenstiern, qui avait de la rudesse et une grande roideur, mais dont les principes étaient fermes et invariables, qu'avec Salvius, qui avait l'art de les flatter, mais dont ils craignaient les irrésolutions et les détours.

Swedish translation (by anonymous translator):

För att uppägga Salvii nit och gifva denne ambassadör mera betydenhet vid fredsunderhandlingarna just då, när det kom an på att dervid lägga sista handen, utnämnde Drottningen honom till Svenskt Riksråd. Hon hade redan lofvat att bekläda honom med detta embete, och i det bref hon skref till honom härom, stodo dessa ord: "Detta kan icke ske, utan att ådraga er många afundsmän; men ni kan svara såsom Marius i Salustius: De förakta min ringhet, och jag deras högmod; och om man förebrår mig min lycka, kan man förebrå dem deras laster." När hon gjorde utnämningen i Senaten, yttrade hon sig i desse ordalag: "Vid de tillfällen då staten har behöf af kloka råd och goda tänkesätt, bör man ej söka efter sexton anor, utan hvad man är i stånd att uträtta. Adler Salvius ansåges utan tvifvel allmänt såsom en skicklig man, om han vore af hög familj. Imellertid kan han anse såsom en förmon, att man icke har mer än denna förebråelse att göra honom. Det är maktpåliggande att äga skicklige män. Om stora familjers barn hafva skicklighet, skola de göra lycka såsom de andra, utan att man likväl behöfver inskränka sig till ett litet antal familjer eller personer".

Salvius, som kort derpå såg, att alla hinder voro undanröjda, begärde att få återvända till Sverige, och öfverlemnade åt sin embetsbroder Johan Oxenstjerna, omsorgen att afsluta traktaten. Han dog några år efter sin återkomst. De, som kunnat på nära håll iakttaga hans förhållande vid kongressen, dömde att han vid underhandlingarne nedlagt mera slughet och färdighet, än fasthet och grundlighet; att han låtit sig hänföras till orättvisa misstankar af en vantrogen karakter, och att han, oaktadt sitt misstroende, varit flere gånger lätt att förleda eller vinna. Några handlingar berätta, att då han gjort många svårigheter vid en punkt, som angick Kurfurstens af Brandenburg skadestånd, gaf han efter när man bjudit honom 20,000 riksdaler, och begärde att man skulle gifva nästan lika mycket åt hans embetsbroder. De andra makternas ambassadörer underhandlade hellre med Johan Oxenstjerna, som var sträf och mycket envis, men hvars grundsatser voro fasta och oföränderliga, än med Salvius, som förstod att smickra dem, men hvars villrådighet och undflykter de fruktade.

English translation (my own):

To spur Salvius' zeal and to give him more weight in the negotiations, when the final touches were needed, the Queen appointed him senator of Sweden. She had already promised to endow him with this office, and in the letter she wrote to him on the subject were these words:

"This cannot be done without attracting many envious people; but you will be able to reply like Marius, in Sallust: 'They despise my obscurity, and I their indolence; and if I am reproached for my fortune, they can be reproached for their vices'."

When she made the appointment in the Senate, she explained herself in these terms:

"On occasions when the State needs wise counsel and good advice, one should not inquire about the sixteen quarters, but about what one is in a position to do. Adler Salvius would doubtless be generally regarded as an able man, if he were of noble family. However, it can be considered an advantage that one has only this criticism to make of him. It is important to have capable men. If the children of great houses have capacity, they will make fortunes like the others, without however restricting oneself to a small number of families or people."

Shortly after, Salvius, seeing that all the difficulties had been resolved, asked to be allowed to return to Sweden, and entrusted to his colleague, Johan Oxenstierna, the task of completing the treaty. He died a few years after his return.

Those who had been able to observe his conduct at the Congress closely judged that he had put more finesse and dexterity into the negotiations than firmness and depth; that he had allowed himself to be led into unjust suspicions by a touchy character, and that, despite his distrust, he had more than once been quite easy to seduce or win over.

Some memoirs report that, having made many difficulties on a point relating to the indemnities of the Elector of Brandenburg, he yielded when he was offered 20,000 écus, and asked that about the same amount be given to his colleague. The ambassadors of other powers preferred to treat with Johan Oxenstierna, who was rude and very stiff, but whose principles were firm and unchanging, than with Salvius, who had the art of flattering them, but whose irresolutions and detours they feared.


Above: Kristina.


Above: Johan Oxenstierna.


Above: Johan Adler Salvius.

Thursday, July 17, 2025

Wilhelm Heinrich Grauert on Kristina's favour for Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie, for the Palatine House, and for Johan Adler Salvius respectively

Source:

Christina, Königinn von Schweden, und ihr Hof, volume 1, pages 166 to 178, by Wilhelm Heinrich Grauert, 1837; original at the Bavarian State Library


Kristina's letter of July 21/31 (Old Style), 1648 to Johan Adler Salvius is here:


The account:

Die Opposition der Königinn gegen das Haus Oxenstierna und den alten Adel überhaupt trat bald darauf viel deutlicher hervor. Um eine sichere Stütze gegen dieselben zu erhalten, ergriff sie das ganz geeignete Mittel, jüngere Häuser ihnen entgegenzustellen, und zu hohen Ehren zu befördern, und zwar solche, deren Interessen schon früher denen der Oxenstiernaschen Parthei entgegengestanden hatten, und die namentlich Christina's Neigung für Frankreich theilten. Die Personen, welche hier zunächst in den Vordergrund traten, sind der Graf de la Gardie, das Pfälzische Haus, und Adler Salvius. Der Graf Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie war der Sohn des Jac. Pontusson de la Gardie, welcher die von seinem Vater, einem aus Frankreich stammenden und durch das Kriegsgeschick nach Schweden verschlagenen Edelmanne, Reichsrath und Reichsfeldmarschall, also zu einem der fünf größten Würdenträger aufgeschwungen hatte, und nach Gustav Adolf's Tode zum Vormünder ernannt war. Auch in dem kalten Norden hatte diese Familie mit dem Französischen Blute den Charakter und die Gesinnungen der Franzosen beibehalten. Der junge Graf Magnus, welcher, 22 Jahre alt, grade von seinen Reisen zurückgekehrt war, hatte eine ganz Französische Erziehung und Bildung genossen: er vereinigte mit einer angenehmen Gestalt und Gesichtsbildung große Geschmeidigkeit des Charakters, Gewandtheit und Anmuth des Benehmens; er besaß Verstand, mannigfache Kenntnisse und viel Liebe zu den Wissenschaften, welche er mit großer Freigebigkeit an den Tag legte. Uebrigens hatte er mehr eine glänzende Außenseite, als reellen Werth an Geist und Charakter: er war leichtsinnig, ehrsüchtig, übermüthig im Glücke, feig und kriechend im Unglücke; es fehlte ihm Wahrheit, Redlichkeit und Stärke des Charakters. Zum Hofmanne war er vorzüglich geeignet; und es ist vollkommen begreiflich, daß er sich bei einer so jungen, geistreichen und lebhaften Fürstinn, wie Christina, bald in sehr hohem Grade Gunst und Huld erwarb, und bei den damaligen Verhältnissen schnell zu außerordentlichem Ansehen emporstieg. Denn Christina glaubte in ihm den Mann gefunden zu haben, den sie mit dem besten Erfolge dem Hause Oxenstierna entgegenstellen könnte, zumal da nie besonders gutes Einverständniß unter den beiden Häusern scheint gewesen zu seyn. Er wurde bald nach seiner Rückkehr zum Obersten der Leibgarde erhoben, und erhielt kurz darauf außer seiner Besoldung eine jährliche Pension von 1500 Reichsthalern. Um aber seine und ihre Stellung noch mehr zu sichern, mußte ihr eine enge Verbindung dieses Mannes mit dem Pfälzischen Hause ganz besonders geeignet erscheinen, da dieses durch seine Zurücksetzung gegen die Großen sehr entrüstet war, und dem Grafen Magnus eine Verbindung mit den nahen Verwandten der Königinn ein bedeutendes Gewicht am Hofe verleihen, und die Parthei in sich consolidiren mußte. Daher bewerkstelligte Christina die Verlobung de la Gardie's mit Marie Euphrosyne, der Tochter des Pfalzgrafen. Ehe aber die Vermählung vollzogen würde, wollte sie ihm noch einen vorzüglichen Glanz verleihen durch Uebertragung einer außerordentlichen Gesandtschaft nach Frankreich. Dem Grotius war in dem dortigen Gesandtschaftsposten Cerisantes gefolgt, der Sohn eines in Frankreich eingebürgerten Schotten, und ein schöner Geist, der sich durch prosaische und poetische Schriften Namen erworben hatte, und von Grotius selbst dem Reichskanzler angelegentlich empfohlen war; er wußte es zu bewirken, daß die Königinn ihm die wichtige Stelle anvertraute, wahrscheinlich auch in der Absicht, durch die Wahl eines Franzosen das Mißfallen des Hofes über Grotius zu beschwichtigen. Allein Cerisantes verließ nach kurzer Zeit den Französischen Hof ohne Vorwissen der Königinn, in deren Diensten er stand, und ging nach Stockholm. Ihn zu ersetzen, wurde auf's Neue ein Mann gewählt, dessen Familie aus Frankreich stammte, und dessen ganzes Wesen für den Französischen Hof vollkommen paßte. Der Gegenstand seiner Sendung war, außer andern unwichtigeren Punkten, theils, dem Könige zu den neuen Erfolgen seiner Waffen Glück zu wünschen, theils ihm Dank zu sagen für die Mitwirkung bei dem Dänischen Friedensschlusse, und ein Exemplar dieses Tractates zu überreichen zur feierlichen Bestätigung durch Unterschrift und Siegel. Zugleich sollte er aber auch auf neue Bestätigung des Bündnisses zwischen beiden Kronen, gemeinschaftliche und kräftigere Fortsetzung des Deutschen Krieges, vereinigte Betreibung des Friedens, und Ablehnung eines Separatfriedens mit Baiern antragen; so wie auf Restituirung des Kur-Pfälzischen und Baden-Durlachschen Hauses dringen. Es war dieß die erste feierliche Gesandtschaft, welche Schweden nach Frankreich schickte. Theils um sich hier in angemessenem Glanze und königlicher Würde zu zeigen, theils um de la Gardie persönlich auf alle Weise zu ehren, stattete daher Christina ihn und sein zahlreiches Gefolge mit großer Pracht aus, und wies dazu beträchtliche Summen an. Paul Straßburg, der früher Gesandter in Siebenbürgen und bei der Pforte gewesen war, wurde ihm als Rathgeber zur Seite gesetzt. De la Gardie schickte seinen Haushofmeister voraus, um Alles zu seiner Einrichtung auf's Beste in Stand zu setzen, und reiste im Sommer 1646 von Stockholm ab. Damals war schon der Französische Gesandte Chanut am Schwedischen Hofe, welcher bald auf die Angelegenheiten desselben so bedeutenden Einfluß gewann. Dieser, ein sehr gewandter und kluger Hofmann, beeilte sich, den Kardinal Mazarin aufmerksam zu machen, daß man vor Allem diesen Gesandten mit den möglichsten Ehrenbezeugungen empfangen möchte, da er schon jetzt bei der Königinn in der höchsten Gunst stehe, und bald der wichtigste Mann an ihrem Hofe seyn werde: durch nichts könne man sich ihre Freundschaft in höherem Grade und dauernder erwerben. So wurde denn der Graf mit allen Ehren am Französischen Hofe aufgenommen, Bälle, Schauspiele, glänzende Mahlzeiten und mannigfache Vergnügungen seinetwegen veranstaltet: seine Persönlichkeit machte dort einen sehr angenehmen Eindruck. Auch erreichte er den Zweck seiner Sendung, indem er theils die gewünschten Bewilligungen erhielt, theils sehr freigebige Versprechungen. Darauf kehrte er, mit großen Ehren entlassen, nach Schweden zurück.

In Frankreich hatte der Graf von seiner Königinn mit so unbegrenzter Verehrung und leidenschaftlicher Begeisterung geredet, daß man leicht eine größere Neigung, als wie der Unterthan sie hegt, argwöhnen konnte. Und wirklich hatte die große Gunst, womit Christina ihn hervorhob, das Gerücht veranlaßt, daß sie eine zärtliche Neigung zu ihm gefaßt habe, und daß nur ihre königliche Würde sie hindere, ihn zum Gemahl zu wählen. Leibnitz soll sogar bestimmt versichert haben, sie habe ihn sehr geliebt, und zu seiner Verlobten gesagt: "ich gebe dir den, der mir selbst versagt ist." Solchen Gerüchten fehlt die historische Gewißheit. Vielleicht aber war auch das, eben wie bei Oxenstierna's Sohne, ein Grund, daß Christina die Verlobung des Grafen mit der Pfälzischen Prinzessinn so angelegentlich betrieben hatte, und daß sie gleich nach der Rückkehr desselben bei dem Pfalzgrafen Johann Casimir sich dringend verwandte für die Vollziehung dieser Vermählung, welche dieser selbst auch von Herzen wünschte. Und so fand die Feierlichkeit bald mit großem Pompe Statt. Seitdem stieg der Graf fortwährend in der königlichen Gunst, und sein Einfluß wurde immer bedeutender. Dieß wurde befördert durch die frühere Verbindung seines Hauses mit dem der Brahe, zumal dieses mit den Oxenstierna gespannt war. Der alte Feldmarschall dagegen, der immer mehr sein Gesicht verlor, nahm an den Staatsgeschäften nur wenig mehr Antheil.

Das Pfalzgräfliche Haus aber, welches auch seinerseits durch diese Verbindung größere Bedeutung gewinnen mußte, suchte die Königinn, auch noch auf andere Weise hervorzuheben. Der junge Held Karl Gustav kam im J. 1645 nach Schweden zurück, nicht ohne Ruhm von seiner kriegerischen Laufbahn, und körperlich und geistig sehr ausgebildet. Christina behandelte ihn auf's Artigste und Wohlwollendste, so wie er nichts versäumte, um sich ihre Huld in immer höherem Grade zu erwerben; mit großer Klugheit hielt er sich von den Streitigkeiten der Großen entfernt, und lebte bei seinem Vater auf Stegeborg; und wenn auch der Einsichtsvolle sein Streben, der jungen Königinn Hand zu gewinnen, nicht verkennen konnte, so benahm er sich doch hierin stets mit großer Vorsicht und Delikatesse. Christina wich nun freilich diesen Bestrebungen fortwährend aus, bezeugte ihm aber ihre Gunst unter Andern dadurch, daß sie ihm beträchtliche Güter zu seinem Unterhalt schenkte, ungeachtet des Widerspruches Oxenstierna's, und sein Jahrgehalt von 2000 auf 5000 Thaler vermehrte, "in Ansehung" (wie die Worte des Rescriptes lauten) "der von Seiner Hoheit uns bewiesenen langen, treuen und fleißigen Ergebenheit, wie auch der rühmlichen Kriegsdienste in Deutschland gegen unsere und des Reiches Feinde." In demselben Wohlwollen beförderte sie die Vermählung seiner jüngsten Schwester, Eleonore Katharine, mit dem Landgrafen Friedrich von Hessen-Eschwege, dem Sohne der berühmten Landgräfinn Amalia Elisabeth.

Ein zweiter Hofmann und Diplomat, den Christina mit besonderer Gunst und Vertrauen beehrte, und als große Stütze gegen das Oxenstiernasche Haus zu benutzen anfing, war Johann Adler Salvius. Er war der Sohn eines Bürgers zu Stregnäs von geringem Stande und Vermögen, Namens Salvius, und widmete sich Anfangs der Medicin, darauf der Jurisprudenz und den Staatswissenschaften, beschäftigte sich aber auch zugleich mit der Theologie, und, wie er selbst sagt, "per omne scientiarum genus, quo me bonus abstulit error": in der Jurisprudenz erlangte er die Doktorwürde, und machte sich durch einige Schriften bekannt. Durch seine Kenntnisse und Fähigkeiten zog er die Aufmerksamkeit des Reichskanzlers auf sich, welcher ihn dem Könige Gustav Adolf empfahl: er wurde Assessor des Oberhofgerichts zu Stockholm, Staatssekretair und Kanzlei-Rath, in diplomatischen Sendungen nach Polen, Dänemark und Deutschland gebraucht, bei'm Deutschen Kriege zum Schwedischen Bevollmächtigten in Niedersachsen ernannt, und vom Könige in den Adelstand erhoben, mit dem Beinamen Adler. Nach dem Tode desselben behielt er die Besorgung der Niedersächsischen Angelegenheiten, indem er zu Hamburg residirte, doch natürlich unter der Oberaufsicht des Reichskanzlers: er schloß mit den dortigen Fürsten den Subsidien-Tractat für Schweden. Ueberall entwickelte er eine so große Gewandtheit und diplomatische Kunst, daß er, wie Christina sagt, alle Menschen zu Allem vermochte, was er wollte. So stieg er denn fortwährend in Würden und Ansehn, erhielt den Titel eines Barons zu Ornholm, Dynasten zu Adlersberg, Harsefeld u. s. w., wurde zum Hofkanzler und Geheimrath ernannt, und zu einem der Gesandten bei'm Westfälischen Friedensschlusse bestimmt. Ein solcher Mann, welcher von so niedriger Stufe zu den höchsten Würden im Staate emporgekommen war, konnte schon eben deßhalb dem alten Schwedischen Adel leicht widerwärtig sein. Daß er aber zu den Oxenstierna, Vater und Sohn, in ein besonders feindseliges Verhältniß treten mußte, wurde nothwendig durch seinen Charakter herbeigeführt. Bougeant, der doch so sehr im Interesse und Geiste Frankreichs schreibt, welchem Salvius gänzlich ergeben war, entwirft von ihm folgendes Bild: "er besaß große Fähigkeiten und Kenntniß der Geschäfte, und leitete mit vieler Geschicklichkeit eine diplomatische Unterhandlung: doch war diese Geschicklichkeit mit einiger Langsamkeit verbunden, und nur die Frucht wiederholten Nachdenkens; er wußte sich außerordentlich zu verstellen, und seine Meinung zu verbergen, dagegen die seiner Gegner sehr wohl zu entdecken; aber sein Scharfsinn ging oft zu weit, und machte ihn unruhig und argwöhnisch; übrigens bestand er eigensinnig auf seinen Ansichten, war immer eifersüchtig auf den mindesten Vorzug Anderer, und ungeachtet seines Mißtrauens doch zuweilen leicht zu verführen oder zu gewinnen." Er war, setzt Wicquefort hinzu, sehr interessirt, und nicht ganz unbestechlich, obgleich er schon sehr gut sein Glück gemacht hatte. Dabei war er außerordentlich geschmeidig und höflich im Umgange, ein vollendeter Hofmann, wie in der Folge zur Genüge erhellen wird. Die diplomatischen Verhandlungen, welche er leitete, lassen auf der einen Seite jene großen Fähigkeiten und Kenntnisse, auf der andern die Zweideutigkeit seines Charakters deutlich hervortreten.

Dieß paßte Alles sehr schlecht zu dem großartigen Charakter Axel Oxenstierna's, und noch weniger zu dem seines Sohnes Johann. Letzterer stand an Geist und Charakter seinem Vater weit nach, obgleich ein Mann von Verstand und Kenntnissen. In den Staatsgeschäften war er wohl bewandert, aber langsam, weitschweifig, an Kleinigkeiten hangend, und einseitig: der große Blick des Vaters fehlte ihm ganz, und dieser selbst ermahnt ihn, an die Königinn nicht so weitschweifige und mit ganz gleichgültigen Dingen angefüllte Briefe zu schreiben, so wie er sich über seine Säumigkeit im Schreiben beschwert. Er war ehrlich und offen, besaß aber auch die ganze Heftigkeit und den ganzen Stolz seines Vaters, und eine viel größere Derbheit als dieser; er war höchst unbiegsam und hartnäckig, und bei seiner Geradheit nicht darauf bedacht, seinen Stolz zu verdecken, vielmehr trug er ihn zur Schau durch großen Aufwand und Pomp: so beledigte er sehr leicht, und Jeder konnte seine Gedanken und Pläne durchschauen: sein Vater tadelt ihn wegen voreiliger Aeußerungen über andere Personen, Bitterkeit und Leidenschaftlichkeit in seinen Briefen an die Königinn, und ermahnt ihn zu größerer Vorsicht; als der Englische Gesandte in Schweden höflich bei ihm anfragen ließ, wann er ihm den Abschiedsbesuch machen könne, ließ er zurücksagen, es sei ihm noch nicht gelegen. So war er das gerade Gegentheil von Salvius, und zum Diplomaten am wenigsten geschaffen. Wie sein Vater, war denn Johann Oxenstierna Frankreich durchaus abhold, wogegen Salvius sich demselben immer mehr zuneigte, vielleicht mehr aus Politik, seiner Königinn zu gefallen, als aus wahrer Neigung.

Die Opposition des Salvius gegen die Oxenstierna tritt denn auch schon ziemlich früh hervor. Als Grotius dem Französischen Hofe so sehr mißfällig war, erhielt der Graf d'Avaux Befehl von demselben, den Salvius zu gewinnen, um durch ihn die Zurückberufung des Grotius zu bewirken, und der Französische Hof ließ ihm sogar ein Gehalt anbieten; ein Beweis, daß man ihn für nicht unbestechlich hielt, wie er es auch nicht war. Freilich stand Grotius mit ihm in Correspondenz, und Salvius schrieb demselben einen Brief voller Höflichkeiten: aber man sieht ihnen auch an, daß es nichts weiter war. In Grotius griff Salvius mittelbar den Reichskanzler an. Auch Christina kannte diese Feindseligkeit schon früh: sie schreibt bereits i. J. 1641 an den Pfalzgrafen: "Johann Oxenstierna und Salvius werden tractiren, aber sie werden schwerlich über eins kommen." Noch in demselben Jahre kamen sie denn auch schon ziemlich hart an einander, trotz der großen Entfernung, da Oxenstierna in Stralsund, Salvius in Hamburg lebte. Beide waren schon damals zu Gesandten bei dem Westfälischen Friedens-Congresse ernannt, dessen Eröffnung eben damals in Hamburg beschlossen wurde. Salvius nämlich schrieb an Oxenstierna, es gezieme sich, dem Grotius den Titel "Illustrissime et Excellentissime" zu geben, weil nach dem Ceremoniel aller Höfe dieser Titel der Würde eines Gesandten gebühre, und weil diese Würde der königlichen am nächsten stehe. Oxenstierna glaubte, Salvius fordere dadurch diesen Titel auch für sich, und er wolle sich so über den Vorrang, den Oxenstierna vermöge seiner Geburt und Stellung behauptete, hinwegsetzen. Er antwortete ihm daher derb und bitter, in seiner Weise, und unter Anderm, er sehe ihn nicht für den Mann an, ihm Lehren zu geben. Darauf brach Salvius die Correspondenz trotzig ab, mit dem Bedeuten, er werde sich ein anderesmal deutlicher darüber erklären. Oxenstierna sah bei diesem Verhältnisse leicht voraus, daß die großen Schwierigkeiten, welche die vielfachen sich kreuzenden Interessen bei der Friedensverhandlung schon an sich hervorrufen würden, durch Feindseligkeit zwischen den beiden Gesandten Schwedens, dessen Befriedigung doch schon die schwierigste war, noch bedeutend erhöht werden müßte, und bat daher seinen Vater, einen Andern statt seiner nach Osnabrück zu schicken. Allein dieser, der übrigens seinem Sohne fortwährend die eindringlichsten Erinnerungen zur Friedfertigkeit und Klugheit gegeben hatte, war weit entfernt davon, seinen Sohn dem Salvius welchen zu lassen; er glaubte, diesem nothwendig einen Mann zur Seite setzen zu müssen, auf welchen er sich vollkommen verlassen könnte. Daher schrieb er seinem Sohne, er habe nichts zu fürchten, Alles werde sich mit der Zeit entwickeln, und fügte hinzu, "an nescis, mi fili, quantilla prudentia regitur orbis"? So blieb es bei der früheren Bestimmung.

Wie aber Salvius zu Joh. Oxenstierna sehr schlecht paßte, so näherten ihn dagegen dem Grafen Magnus Charakter und Interessen ganz entschieden. Daher knüpfte sich zwischen ihnen bald eine enge freundschaftliche Verbindung an: und Salvius war klug genug, sich gegen den Günstling der Königinn eben so artig und unterwürfig zu benehmen, wie er dem Oxenstierna mit Stolz und Eigensinn entgegentrat. Eine merkwürdige Probe davon ist ein etwas späterer Brief von ihm an de la Gardie, worin er versichert, er habe mit allem erdenklichen Respect den sehr höflichen und verbindlichen Brief Seiner Excellenz empfangen, und mit Freuden dessen glückliche Ankunft zu Leipzig, so wie die Fortsetzung seines Wohlwollens gegen ihn, seinen Diener, vernommen; er betrachte es als einen ausgezeichneten Beweis von dem besondern Vertrauen, welches Seine Excellenz so gütig sei in ihn zu setzen, daß derselbe sein geringes Urtheil über eine so schwierige Sache zu vernehmen wünsche u. s. w. Die Königinn bestärkte ihn in dieser Anhänglichkeit auf alle Weise: "ich versichere Ihnen", schreibt sie, "daß Sie im Grafen Magnus stets einen treuen Freund finden werden". Es ist aber ganz erklärlich, daß Christina grade diesen Mann besonders zu sich heranzog. Sie hatte von seiner Fähigkeit in den diplomatischen Geschäften viele Beweise; seine Gewandtheit und Geschmeidigkeit, wie seine Neigung für Frankreich, war ihr wahrscheinlich durch seine Freunde am Hofe bekannt geworden; die Opposition gegen das Haus Oxenstierna mußte ihr für ihre Absichten besonders willkommen sein. Seine schlimmen Eigenschaften konnte sie aber aus persönlicher Bekanntschaft mit ihm nicht kennen lernen, wenn sie auch damals schon Menschenkenntniß genug besaß, diese zu durchschauen: denn Salvius war seit dem Jahre 1635 vom Hofe entfernt, als Resident in Hamburg. Wir werden bald sehen, in welchem Grade sie ihm Gunst und Vertrauen zuwandte. —

English translation (my own):

The Queen's opposition to the House of Oxenstierna and the old nobility in general soon became much more apparent. In order to gain secure support against them, she took the appropriate measure of opposing them with younger houses and promoting them to high honours, namely those whose interests had previously opposed those of the Oxenstierna party and who, in particular, shared Kristina's inclination for France. The figures who immediately came to the fore here were the Count de la Gardie, the Palatine House, and Adler Salvius.

Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie was the son of Jakob Pontusson de la Gardie, who had raised the House of de la Gardie from his father, a nobleman originally from France who had been thrown to Sweden by military fortunes, to the position of councilman and grand field marshal, thus becoming one of the five greatest dignitaries. After Gustav Adolf's death, he was appointed guardian. Even in the cold North, this family with French blood had retained the character and attitudes of the French.

The young Count Magnus, who, at 22 years old, had just returned from his travels, had enjoyed a thoroughly French upbringing and education. He combined a pleasant figure and facial features with great suppleness of character, agility, and grace of manners. He possessed intelligence, diverse knowledge and a great love of the sciences, which he displayed with great generosity.

Moreover, he had more of a brilliant exterior than real worth in spirit and character: he was frivolous, ambitious, arrogant in good fortune, cowardly and groveling in misfortune; he lacked truth, integrity, and strength of character. He was eminently suited to be a courtier, and it is entirely understandable that he soon gained a very high degree of favour and grace from such a young, witty and lively princess as Kristina, and he quickly rose to extraordinary renown given the circumstances of the time.

Kristina believed she had found in him the man through whom she could most successfully oppose the House of Oxenstierna, particularly since there never seems to have been a particularly good understanding between the two houses. Soon after his return, he was promoted to colonel of the bodyguard and shortly thereafter received, in addition to his salary, an annual pension of 1,500 riksdalers.

But, to further secure his and her position, a close connection between this man and the Palatine House seemed particularly appropriate, as the latter was greatly indignant at his disregard against the grandees, and a connection with the Queen's close relatives would give Count Magnus considerable weight at court and consolidate the party within herself. Kristina therefore arranged de la Gardie's engagement to Marie Euphrosyne, the Count Palatine's daughter.

Before the marriage was consummated, however, she wanted to give him further distinction by entrusting him with an extraordinary embassy to France. Grotius had been succeeded in the embassy post there by Cérisantes, the son of a Scotsman naturalised in France, a fine mind who had earned a reputation through prose and poetic writings, and who had been earnestly recommended to the Grand Chancellor by Grotius himself. He managed to persuade the Queen to entrust him with the important position, probably also with the intention of appeasing the court's displeasure with Grotius by choosing a Frenchman.

However, after a short time, Cérisantes left the French court without the prior knowledge of the Queen, in whose service he was, and went to Stockholm. To replace him, a man was chosen again, whose family was of French origin and whose entire character was perfectly suited to the French court. The purpose of his mission, among other less important points, was partly to congratulate the King on the recent victories of his arms, partly to thank him for his cooperation in the Danish peace treaty, and to present a copy of this treaty for solemn confirmation by signature and seal.

At the same time, however, he was also to propose a renewed confirmation of the alliance between the two Crowns, a joint and more vigorous continuation of the German war, a united pursuit of peace, and the rejection of a separate peace with Bavaria; as well as to insist on the restoration of the Electorate of the Palatinate and the House of Baden-Durlach. This was the first solemn embassy that Sweden sent to France.

Partly to present herself here in appropriate splendour and royal dignity, and partly to honour de la Gardie personally in every way, Kristina furnished him and his numerous retinue with great splendour and allocated considerable sums for this purpose. Paul von Strassburg, who had previously been ambassador to Transylvania and to the Porte, was appointed as his advisor. De la Gardie sent his steward ahead to prepare everything for his establishment and departed from Stockholm in the summer of 1646.

At that time, the French ambassador Chanut was already at the Swedish court, and he soon gained significant influence over its affairs. The latter, a very clever and astute courtier, hastened to draw Cardinal Mazarin's attention to the fact that, above all, this ambassador should be received with the greatest possible honours, as he was already in the Queen's highest favour and would soon be the most important man at her court; nothing could earn her friendship more fully and permanently.

Thus, the Count was received with all honours at the French court, and balls, plays, splendid meals and various entertainments were organized for his sake. His personality made a very pleasant impression there. He also achieved the purpose of his mission, receiving both the desired grants and very generous promises. He then returned to Sweden, dismissed with great honours.

In France, the Count had spoken of his Queen with such boundless reverence and passionate enthusiasm that one could easily suspect a greater affection than that harboured by him as a subject. Indeed, the great favour with which Kristina distinguished him had given rise to the rumour that she had developed a tender attachment to him, and that only her royal dignity prevented her from choosing him as her husband. Leibniz is even said to have affirmed with certainty that she loved him very much and said to his fiancée: "I will give you the one who has been denied me."

Such rumours lack historical certainty. Perhaps, however, just as with Oxenstierna's son, this was also a reason why Kristina had so earnestly pursued the Count's engagement to the Princess Palatine, and why, immediately after his return, she urgently interceded with Count Palatine Johan Kasimir for the consummation of this marriage, which he himself also desired from the bottom of his heart. And so the ceremony soon took place with great pomp.

Since then, the Count's royal favour steadily increased, and his influence became ever more significant. This was furthered by his House's previous connection with the Brahe family, especially since the latter was enmeshed with the Oxenstierna family. The old Field Marshal, on the other hand, who was increasingly losing face, took little more part in affairs of State.

The Palatine House, however, which itself was bound to gain greater importance through this union, sought to distinguish the Queen in other ways as well. The young hero, Karl Gustav, returned to Sweden in 1645, not without distinction from his military career, and well trained both physically and mentally. Kristina treated him most kindly and benevolently, and he neglected nothing to ever increase her favour. With great prudence, he kept himself away from the quarrels of the nobles and lived with his father at Stegeborg. And although the discerning eye could not fail to recognise his desire to win the hand of the young Queen, he nevertheless always behaved with great caution and delicacy.

Kristina, however, continually evaded these efforts, but demonstrated her favour, among other things, by granting him considerable property for his maintenance, despite Oxenstierna's objections, and by increasing his annual salary from 2,000 to 5,000 dalers, "in consideration" (as the rescript reads) "of the long, faithful, and diligent devotion shown to Us by His Highness, as well as of his honourable military service in Germany against Our enemies and those of the Realm."

With the same goodwill, she promoted the marriage of his youngest sister, Eleonora Katarina, to Landgrave Friedrich of Hesse-Eschwege, the son of the famous Landgravine Amalia Elisabeth.

A second courtier and diplomat whom Kristina honoured with special favour and trust, and whom she began to use as a strong support against the Oxenstierna family, was Johan Adler Salvius. He was the son of a citizen of Strängnäs of low standing and wealth named Salvius. He initially devoted himself to medicine, then to jurisprudence and political science, but also simultaneously engaged in theology and, as he himself puts it, "per omne scientiarum genus, quo me bonus abstulit error" — "through every kind of science, from which a good error took me away". He earned a doctorate in jurisprudence and became known through several writings. Through his knowledge and abilities, he attracted the attention of the Grand Chancellor, who recommended him to King Gustav Adolf.

He became an assessor of the High Court in Stockholm, secretary of State, and the Council of the Chancellery, deployed on diplomatic missions to Poland, Denmark and Germany. During the German war, he was appointed Swedish plenipotentiary in Lower Saxony and raised to the nobility by the King, with the surname Adler. After his [the King's] death, he retained responsibility for Lower Saxony's affairs, residing in Hamburg, but naturally under the supervision of the Grand Chancellor. He concluded the subsidy treaty for Sweden with the princes there.

In every respect, he displayed such great skill and diplomatic skill that, as Kristina says, he could persuade anyone to do anything he wished. Thus he steadily rose in rank and prestige, receiving the title of Baron of Ornholm, Dynast of Adlersberg, Harsefeld, etc.; he was appointed chancellor of the court and privy councilman and appointed one of the ambassadors to the Peace of Westphalia. Such a man, who had risen from such a lowly position to the highest dignities in the State, could easily have been repugnant to the old Swedish nobility for this very reason.

The fact that he had to enter into a particularly hostile relationship with the Oxenstiernas, father and son, was inevitably brought about by his character. Bougeant, who writes so strongly in the interest and spirit of France, to which Salvius was entirely devoted, paints the following picture of him:

"He possessed great ability and knowledge of affairs and conducted diplomatic negotiations with great skill. However, this skill was combined with a certain slowness and was only the result of repeated reflection. He was exceptionally adept at dissembling and concealing his own opinion, while at the same time being able to discover those of his opponents very well. But his acumen often went too far and made him restless and suspicious.

Otherwise, he stubbornly insisted on his views, was always jealous of the slightest advantage in others, and, despite his mistrust, was occasionally easy to seduce or win over."

He was, Wicquefort adds, very interested and not entirely incorruptible, although he had already made a very good fortune. At the same time, he was extraordinarily pliant and courteous in his dealings, a consummate courtier, as will become abundantly clear below. The diplomatic negotiations he conducted clearly reveal, on the one hand, his great ability and knowledge, and, on the other, the ambiguity of his character.

All this suited the magnificent character of Axel Oxenstierna very poorly, and even less so that of his son Johan. The latter was far inferior to his father in spirit and character, although a man of understanding and learning. He was well versed in affairs of State, but slow, prolix, fixated on trifles, and one-sided. He completely lacked his father's broad vision, and his father himself admonished him not to write such prolix letters to the Queen, filled with such indifferent things, as he complained about his tardiness in writing.

He was honest and open, but also possessed all the vehemence and pride of his father, and a much greater coarseness than his father. He was extremely inflexible and stubborn, and despite his straightforwardness, he did not care to conceal his pride, but rather displayed it with great ostentation and pomp. He thus easily offended one, and everyone could see through his thoughts and plans. His father reprimanded him for hasty statements about other people, and for the bitterness and passion in his letters to the Queen, and admonished him to be more cautious. When the English ambassador in Sweden politely inquired when he could pay him his farewell visit, he replied that it was not yet convenient.

Thus, he was the exact opposite of Salvius, and the least suited to being a diplomat. Like his father, Johan Oxenstierna was thoroughly averse to France, whereas Salvius was increasingly inclined towards it, perhaps more out of politics, to please his Queen, than out of genuine affection.

Salvius's opposition to Oxenstierna becomes apparent quite early on. When Grotius was so displeasing to the French court, Count d'Avaux received orders from the court to win over Salvius in order to secure Grotius' recall, and the French court even offered him a salary — proof that they considered him not incorruptible, just as he was not. Admittedly, Grotius corresponded with him, and Salvius wrote him a letter full of courtesies, but one can also see from them that it amounted to nothing more. In Grotius, Salvius indirectly attacked the Grand Chancellor.

Kristina, too, was aware of this hostility early on; she wrote to the Count Palatine as early as 1641: "Johan Oxenstierna and Salvius will treat, but they will hardly come to an agreement."

That same year, they were already at odds with each other, despite the great distance, as Oxenstierna lived in Stralsund and Salvius in Hamburg. Both had already been appointed ambassadors to the Peace Congress of Westphalia, the opening of which had just been decided in Hamburg. Salvius wrote to Oxenstierna that it was fitting to give Grotius the title "illustrissime et excellentissime", because, according to the ceremonial of all courts, this title befits the dignity of an ambassador, and because this dignity is closest to the royal one. Oxenstierna believed that Salvius was thereby claiming this title for himself and thus wishing to override the precedence that Oxenstierna claimed by virtue of his birth and position. He therefore replied harshly and bitterly, in his own way, and among other things, that he did not consider him the man to teach him.

Salvius then defiantly broke off the correspondence, saying he would explain himself more clearly another time. Given this situation, Oxenstierna easily foresaw that the great difficulties that the numerous conflicting interests would already cause in peace negotiations would be significantly increased by hostility between the two Swedish ambassadors, whose satisfaction was already the most difficult, and he therefore asked his father to send someone else to Osnabrück in his place.

However, the latter, who had, moreover, continually given his son the most penetrating reminders of peace and prudence, was far from willing to leave his son to Salvius; he believed he necessarily had to appoint a man at his side whom he could completely rely on. Therefore, he wrote to his son that he had nothing to fear, everything would develop in time, and added: "an nescis, mi fili, quantilla prudentia regitur orbis?" — "do you not know, my son, with how little prudence one rules the world?"

So the previous resolution remained.

But just as Salvius was a very ill-suited man to Johan Oxenstierna, his character and interests were decidedly more congenial to Count Magnus. Therefore, a close friendship soon developed between them, and Salvius was wise enough to behave towards the Queen's favourite with the same courtesy and subservience as he treated Oxenstierna with pride and stubbornness.

A remarkable example of this is a somewhat later letter from him to de la Gardie, in which he assures that he had received with all imaginable respect the very courteous and obliging letter from His Excellency and had heard with joy of his safe arrival in Leipzig, as well as the continuation of his goodwill towards him, his servant. He considered it an excellent proof of the special trust His Excellency was so kind as to place in him, that he wished to hear his humble opinion on such a difficult matter, etc.

The Queen encouraged him in this attachment in every way. "I assure you", she wrote, "that you will always find in Count Magnus a faithful friend."

It is quite understandable, however, that Kristina particularly attracted this man. She had many proofs of his ability in diplomatic matters; his agility and flexibility, as well as his affinity for France, had probably become known to her through his friends at court. His opposition to the House of Oxenstierna must have been particularly welcome to her intentions. However, she could not have learned about his bad qualities from personal acquaintance, even though she already possessed enough insight into human nature to see through them, for Salvius had been away from court since 1635, living as a resident in Hamburg. We shall soon see to what degree she showed him favour and trust. —


Above: Kristina.


Above: Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie.


Above: Magnus with Marie Euphrosyne.


Above: Johan Adler Salvius.