Source:
Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden, volume 1, pages 138 to 152, by Henry Woodhead, 1863; original at the University of Michigan
The account:
It has already been mentioned that Christian of Denmark endeavoured to raise a coalition against Sweden. The old animosity between the two nations was increased by personal as well as political considerations. The King of Denmark had tried to take the place of head of the Protestants in Germany, and his own failure was embittered by the brilliant achievements of Gustavus Adolphus and his Generals. On the other hand, Christian's reception of Maria Leonora had given so much offence in Sweden, that it had even been proposed to make war on that account.
Mutual ill offices kept these feelings rankling on each side. Denmark viewed her neighbour's progress on the Continent with alarm as well as with jealousy, and she feared to be surrounded by a powerful and unfriendly State. Still Denmark delayed to take such measures of precaution as might perhaps have averted a war.
The Danish nobles were as jealous as the Swedish of the sovereign authority; but they pursued an opposite policy, because the administration, which in Sweden was in the hands of the nobles, was managed in Denmark by an able and energetic monarch.
The Swedish nobles wished for war, because they had the direction of affairs, and took care to keep the prizes among themselves. The Danish nobles thought that a war would increase the power of their King, and would give him an opportunity to ally himself with the people against their order. They therefore obstinately refused to allow their country to be put in such a state of defence as could alone ensure its safety. The King was alarmed at Torstenson's successes in 1642, and renewed his efforts to rouse his people. Still thwarted by the Council, he declared himself not responsible for the evils which he foresaw would presently afflict Denmark.
His warnings were disregarded; but even now it would have been too late, for the Swedish Council had determined on war, and although Christian was not in a condition to resist, he very injudiciously continued to provoke his rivals.
The Sound dues were a fruitful source of quarrel between Denmark and her neighbours. Viewed by her statesmen as a natural and legitimate kind of revenue, these dues were considered by other maritime nations much as travellers consider the ransom exacted by a robber chief who pounces on them from some fastness which they are obliged to pass. The Sound dues had long rested on custom, rather than on law, and were tolerated chiefly because few vessels went that way.
Dantzic, Stralsund, and Lübeck traded with Hamburg by land.
The Dutch were the greatest traders in that part, and they suffered the most, but Sweden also suffered indirectly.
Christian the Second made a treaty with Charles the Fifth in 1544, by which it was provided that vessels passing that way should pay the customary dues. This was the first time the Sound dues were formally recognized; but Charles was willing to oblige a relative at the expense of the industrious Netherlanders.
The Dutch affirmed that the customary dues only amounted to one rose noble for each vessel; but Christian the Fourth now found his other sources of revenue so scanty that he was induced to assert the extravagant principle that the King of Denmark's will was the only rule as to the amount of the Sound dues.
Charles the First, always ready to oppress freedom, joined in a treaty with Spain and Denmark in 1638, the object of which was the ruin of the Dutch trade. Happily, the malice of the high contracting parties was neutralized by their ignorance, for they imagined that their decrees would suffice to transfer the whole Baltic trade from Holland to Denmark.
To their great surprise[,] the Dutch trade went on much the same as if the treaty had never been made, and Christian endeavoured to compensate himself by claiming a toll from the Dutch vessels which sailed round the North Cape to trade with Russia.
Not content with this, he prohibited Dutch vessels from fishing at Spitzbergen, which he asserted belonged to Greenland, and consequently to him. Seldom have so great pretensions been joined to so little power of enforcing them. The only profitable toll was that of the Sound, and Christian determined to make the most of the only tax which it was in his power to collect. In 1639 he raised his toll to 30 per cent, on the value of the commodities, and the Dutch stated that they paid him six millions of rix-dollars in that year.
Even this did not satisfy Christian, for in 1640 he raised his tolls still higher, and the Dutch felt that even their great profits could not support a tax which, in fact, amounted to confiscation.
They sent an embassy to Stockholm, and urged the Swedes to interfere. The embassy was well received, for the old hostility to Denmark had just been stimulated by the flight of the Queen Dowager, besides which the Swedes began to discover that they were indirectly injured by these enormous dues.
Sweden had long enjoyed exemption from toll in the Sound; but her trade had been so inconsiderable that the privilege had been little valued. A free passage was guaranteed to Swedish vessels in 1570, and was confirmed at the conference of Flacksjöbäch in 1580.
At the peace of Knäröd, in 1613, this agreement was recognized for all articles of merchandise except drinkables, on which the Swedes were to pay the same duty as was paid by the Danes themselves.
In 1622 Christian, moved by jealousy at the successes of Gustavus Adolphus in Liefland, prohibited troops and military stores from passing the Sound, and though the order professed to be general, it was, in reality, directed against Sweden.
Gustavus showed his appreciation of this proceeding by marching his army to the frontier of Denmark, and Christian, who was not supported by his Council, hastened to withdraw the obnoxious regulation. He was, however, always on the watch to revive his favourite measure, and in 1637, when the power of Sweden appeared to be waning, he removed the toll. Gunpowder and saltpetre were especially taxed. These articles had hitherto been shipped at Gothenburg. In consequence of Christian's exactions, they were carried overland to the east coast, and the difficulties which attended this mode of transit contributed to bring about the grand project of the Trolhätta canal, to unite the North Sea with the Baltic.
The disputes about the Sound dues increased, and as the Swedish Government reckoned on naval assistance from the Dutch, they determined in 1643 to strike a sudden blow at Denmark.
The question of peace or war was debated in the Council on the 12th of May, and Christina attended the sitting for the first time on this important occasion.
Oxenstiern and Banér were the only two members who spoke in favour of peace, and their only reason was that they thought Sweden had enough to do in Germany. The rest of the Council declared for war. The Chancellor withdrew his opposition, for the excessive tolls, he said, were really equivalent to a war in which Sweden alone suffered, while Denmark reaped the benefit without the danger or expense.
Although Sweden had fair cause for complaint, the way in which she began the war was anything but honourable.
Troops were collected in Sweden with the greatest secrecy, and orders were dispatched to Torstenson to move his army northwards under other pretences, and then suddenly to attack Denmark. The Council also determined that if Torstenson's invasion failed, he was to be disowned, but if it succeeded, Denmark was to be attacked on the other side by the army collected in Sweden.
It was then debated whether any further remonstrance should be addressed to Christian. Many of the Council objected to such a course, for fear he should take the alarm, but Oxenstiern appears to have persuaded his own conscience, and the conscience of his colleagues, that a demand for redress might supply the place of a declaration of war.
Complaints were accordingly addressed to Denmark, but they were so carefully worded that no suspicion was entertained of the impending attack.
Torstenson performed his part with so much address that no mistrust was roused until he suddenly broke into Jutland.
Even Grotius, who condemned the manner in which the war was begun, admired the ability with which it was conducted.
The manifesto containing the causes of the war, was sent to Denmark in January 1644, some time after Torstenson's invasion. The herald was contemptuously dismissed, because the war had been commenced without a proper declaration; and Christian, as a public assertion of the justice of his cause, had a medal struck with the inscription "Justus Jehovah Judex."
All the allies of Denmark failed her in the time of need. Charles I. might justly have given his relatives some aid, because the Swedes were busy at this time in stirring up the Scotch, but his own affairs were far too unsettled to let him take an active part in foreign politics.
Uladislaus of Poland was much inclined to assist the King of Denmark, but on this occasion France did good service to Sweden by her negotiations.
Torstenson himself expressed some apprehensions of a diversion on the side of Poland, but the Council wrote to him, "We will take care that the Russians and Poles keep quiet, while you pluck the feathers from the Danes."
Frederick William of Brandenburg pursued a more friendly policy towards the Swedes than his father had done, because he still hoped to be the accepted suitor of Christina: he therefore remained deaf to Christian's appeals.
Sweden made unusual efforts by sea during this war. A strong fleet was equipped under Fleming, and another squadron was hired from the Dutch. The old antipathy to Denmark had not abated, the old wrongs were not forgotten, and the war was popular with all classes.
The animosity was at least equal on the other side, and it was manifested in a way which showed that public opinion had some weight. Political pamphlets were widely circulated in Denmark, in which Oxenstiern was compared to Pilate, Fleming to Herod, and Torstenson to Judas Iscariot.
Christian, although deserted by his allies, and ill supported by the Danish aristocracy, showed a degree of fortitude sufficient to atone for many errors. Although in his sixty-eighth year, he worked incessantly in the preparation of his ships. When urged to spare himself a little, he answered that he was indeed too old and infirm for land service, but that he would fight his ships in such a way that all the world should know he was true to his country. By great exertions forty ships were got ready for sea in a very short time, and the old King led them against the Swedes.
He fell in with the fleet commanded by Fleming on the 1st of July, and a furious battle ensued. Christian received no less than twenty-three wounds. One ball lodged in his head, another knocked out his right eye; a cannon shot struck a gun carriage near which he was standing, the splinters from which killed and wounded a number of men. It was at first thought that the gallant old King was among the former, as he fell on the deck covered with blood. The Danes were discouraged by the cry, "The King is dead;" but in a short time he was on his legs again, with his bleeding face tied up, and animating his men with his sword in his hand.
In reply to the exhortations of his officers to go below, he expressed his determination to conquer or die.
Fleming fought with equal obstinacy. The battle had lasted all day, and the Danes were somewhat troubled at the condition of their King. Then Fleming collected those ships which were least damaged for a final attack. He bore down on the enemy, but was so hotly received that he was with difficulty able to retire again among his own ships, and night put an end to a combat which had lasten ten hours. The victory was claimed by each side. The Danes captured two ships and lost none of their own, but the Swedes remained the longest on the scene of the battle.
The animosity of the rival commanders was excessive. Christian was urged to return to Copenhagen after the battle, in order that his wounds might receive more skilful treatment. "I do not wish to live", said the old monarch, "unless I can be revenged on the Swedes."
Fleming took his shattered fleet to a sheltered place on the coast of Jutland, and although Torstenson was near at hand, the Danes sent over 1200 men, with some cannon from Fyen, to annoy the Swedish vessels. They erected a battery on some high ground overlooking the sea, but the distance was too great, and one shot only took effect. It struck the water first, and then entered the window of the Admiral's cabin. Fleming was just washing his hands when he was mortally wounded, and a servant who was holding a towel was killed on the spot. Fleming gave some directions regarding his successor, then[,] turning to his son with a ferocity quite unlike his usual character, he said, "Do not grieve, my son! I die the enemy of Denmark; see that you do the same!"
Although the late sea fight had not been very decisive, Sweden's navy was so crippled by it as to make her ultimate success doubtful. The Dutch sailors also revolted, as if to show that mercenaries cannot be depended upon any more by sea than by land.
Christian was much wanted at Copenhagen, but as soon as he left the fleet a great change took place in the energy with which it was directed.
Admiral Galte was left to blockade the Swedish fleet, but the latter no sooner got a fair wind than it stood out to sea without meeting any opposition, and for this want of courage and zeal Galte lost his head. A great disaster to the Danes soon followed. Great exertions were made in Sweden to equip another fleet, of which Wrangel took the command. Du Quesne, afterwards so celebrated for his naval exploits, was second in command, and the Dutch sailors returned to their duty. In the next battle the Swedes did not lose a single ship, but the Danes had ten ships captured, two burned, and three driven on shore. Among the captured vessels taken in triumph to Stockholm was the one which had carried the Queen Dowager to Denmark.
Immediately after the invasion of Denmark, Christian had sent to solicit the alliance and assistance of the Emperor, and the Imperial General Gallas had been ordered to follow Torstenson into Holstein, where he was joined by a Danish Corps.
As Gallas did not venture to give battle, he was soon reduced to the greatest extremities by his adversary, who established fortified posts all round his position, and cut off his supplies. Gallas was even more unfortunate in his retreats than in his battles, and when he escaped from Holstein at last, it was with only 1000 infantry. The rest of his army had perished either by the sword or by famine. The soldiers called him the army-loser instead of the army-leader.
The Danes, also, were very bitter against him, for their country had been more ravaged by his troops than by the enemy. They cast a medal, on one side of which was the inscription, "What Gallas accomplished in Holstein." The other side was blank.
Such was the position of affairs when Christina, who was now eighteen years old, was declared to have attained her majority, and the Regents resigned their authority into her hands.
Notes: Danzig is the old German name for the city of Gdańsk, located in what is now northern Poland in the historical region of Pomerania.
Liefland = Livonia.
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