Source:
Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden, volume 1, pages 22 to 33, by Henry Woodhead, 1863; original at the University of Michigan; original at the University of Michigan
The account:
The presentiments of Gustavus were well founded. He fell in the battle of Lutzen, less than two years after the date of this letter.
He has not generally received the title he so well deserved of "The Great", yet many in his own, as well as in later times, have given him a higher name, and called him "The Immortal Gustavus."
All Europe was struck with consternation, or elated with joy, at his death. The once chivalrous Spain showed how great her fear had been, by the dastardly way in which she published her triumph. The rejoicings at Madrid were continued twelve days, and so many bonfires were made, that the police interfered to prevent the excessive consumption of fuel. Oxenstiern, whose well-regulated mind preserved its calmness through triumphs, anxieties, and reverses, never passed but two sleepless nights — one of them was when he heard the news of his Sovereign's death. All the most important actions of Gustavus Adolphus were performed after the birth of Christina. To give an account of them would be to write his life as well as hers, but a slight notice of his character may not be misplaced. As a soldier, he was considered the equal of Alexander, Hannibal, Cæsar, and Napoleon, by the last and perhaps the greatest soldier of them all, Napoleon himself. As a man he was superior to any of them. He was faithful to his friends, merciful to his enemies, sincere and unselfish. The first three of these heroes lived before the time of Christianity and religious persecution; the fourth had no particular predilection for any religion, and could easily display an impartiality that cost him nothing. Gustavus Adolphus made religion the rule of his actions, he lived in a time of great religious animosity, and he carried on a religious war — yet he was tolerant. His ambition may be favourably contrasted with that of his renowned compeers. He did not seek to exalt himself by leading one quarter of the world against another, nor did he merely fight for conquest. He did not seek to excite the fierce antipathy of rival nations, for in every country there were his friends who were guided by moderation and humanity. Above all he never sought to overturn the constitution and the liberty of his country, for his own personal aggrandizement. His wars in Poland were entailed upon him by a disputed succession, and though there may be a difference of opinion about the justice of his father's claim to the crown, the title of Gustavus Adolphus was a good one, when he succeeded to the throne with the unanimous consent of the Swedish States. His father might have said with Henry IV.: —
"Heaven knows, my son,
By what by-paths and indirect crook'd ways,
I met this crown: and I myself know well
How troublesome it sat upon my head:
To thee it shall descend with better quiet,
Better opinion, better confirmation;
For all the soil of the achievement goes
With me into the earth.
*****
Therefore,
Be it thy course to busy giddy minds
With foreign quarrels: that action hence borne out
May waste the memory of the former days."
Gustavus Adolphus had no choice but to continue the war with Poland, and it was during his numerous campaigns in that country, that he invented a new system of tactics. Before his time, troops used to be formed nine deep. These heavy masses were difficult to move, were exposed to great havoc from an improved artillery, and a small portion of them only could deliver their fire. Gustavus formed his troops in line three deep, nearly the same as at present, and he also introduced the bayonet and cartridge.
He has been reproached for his ambitious projects in the thirty years' war. The French even suspected him of aiming at a universal monarchy, and instead of continuing their subsidies, they contemplated turning their arms against him at the time of his death. But France, at this period, was a jealous, and not a very faithful ally. Richelieu, a cardinal of the Roman Church, only leaned towards the Protestant Swedes for the purpose of humbling the House of Austria, but he did not wish Sweden to gain a decided preponderance. He desired to see Germany engaged in continual war, that he might make the influence of France paramount.
Gustavus may have deceived himself a little as to the purity of his motives, but territorial aggrandizement was certainly not his principal object, or he would have accepted the Emperor's proposal to turn against his old rival, the King of Denmark. Gustavus had striven from the beginning of his reign to make peace with Denmark, and for that object he offered to resign his title of King of the Lapps, which had been put forward by the Danish Sovereign as a chief cause of the war. He also invited the mediation of the United Provinces, who urged on Christian the injury that would accrue to the Protestant religion from the hostility of its two principal champions.
Christian was not at that time inclined for peace, and he put off the ambassadors with a pun. He told them, "Non agitur de religione, sed de regione."
Gustavus distinctly set before himself the object of gaining freedom for the oppressed Protestants of Germany, and declared solemnly that this was his chief end. He was also strongly impressed with the idea that Sweden could not avoid being engaged in the general war that was impending, and he thought that his invasion of Germany would be the most effectual means of keeping the scene of war at a distance from Sweden.
The contest with Poland assisted in bringing about the German war. Sigismund was brother-in-law to Ferdinand II., who did not scruple to send troops to assist him, even when Austria was at peace with Sweden, so that by making war on the Empire, Gustavus did not really increase the number of his enemies. The question of peace or war with Austria was, in fact, beyond the control of individual will.
Gustavus succeeded to the throne as the representative of Protestant opinion, to the exclusion of the elder and Catholic branch of his family. Strong as the religious spirit had become in Sweden, the military spirit was stronger still. Every noble was a soldier; if he could not attain a higher grade, he was obliged to serve in the ranks. The army had the right of sending deputies to the grand council, and if Gustavus had wished it he could hardly have ventured to thwart the warlike inclinations of his people, who were anxious to side with their fellow-Protestants against the oppression and cruelty of Ferdinand II.
This religious enthusiasm extended even to his mercenary troops. His Scotch brigade considered a war against Popery as their own cause, and their behaviour offers a most favourable contrast to that of mercenary troops in general. They preserved their honour and discipline so faithfully, that, in the military revolt which broke out soon after the death of Gustavus, the Scotch regiments were the only ones that remained true.
For the defence of Sweden Gustavus formed a milita who were called indelta soldiers. They were paid in land, and when called out they received money. They formed a hardy and patriotic body of men, who were well trained and always on the spot. The system was found to work so well that it has been continued with little alteration to the present time, and the indelta troops are said to be unrivalled for sobriety and good conduct.
One great cause of the misfortune of Sweden remained in the time of Gustavus Adolphus, the exorbitant power of the aristocracy. The elevation of the Vasa family to the throne was the elevation of one of their own order, who was already allied to many of the great families in Sweden. The royal family continued to intermarry in the same way, and did not wish to set any further bounds to the power of the nobles than was necessary for their own safety.
During the reign of Gustavus Adolphus the power of the nobles increased rather than diminished, although two reasons prevented this from being very apparent.
1. The most able and distinguished nobleman in Sweden was Oxenstiern. He was united to the King by a warm and sincere personal friendship, which was only broken by death, and the memory of which lasted as long as the life of the survivor.
2. The King's abilities and reputation were so great, that few would have been rash enough to have placed themselves in antagonism to him. Yet during his time nobles imitated royalty so far as to have a body-guard, and in formal documents a nobleman styled himself "we." They were so exclusive that the marriage of a nobleman with a lady of inferior rank entailed the forfeiture of his property.
Their privileges were substantial as well as honorary. They were exempt from taxation, and the public functionaries, who were all noblemen, were paid enormously. The alienation of crown property was only permitted to nobles, and, of course, increased their influence in proportion as it diminished that of the sovereign.
Although the peasants had been long used to oppression, they did not always bear it with patience, and their dissatisfaction occasionally showed itself in tumults and disturbances; they were even heard to threaten the extermination of the nobles. Gustavus and his great minister wished to encourage trade in Sweden; but the true principles were little understood; and even the wisest regulations are slow in improving a branch of human activity which flourishes best when left to itself. The Government, moreover, had the monopoly of some trades, of corn in 1628, of salt in 1632, and, as a considerable part of the taxes were paid in kind, these monopolies must have been more than usually injurious.
Every member of the Vasa family seemed to inherit the love of learning of its great founder, and though Gustavus Adolphus had little leisure he had both read and thought a good deal. His anxiety to promote learning may be gathered from the fact that he endowed the University of Upsala in full possession of his hereditary estate.
He admired the famous work of Grotius, "De Jure Belli et Pacis", so much that he never travelled without it, and used to sleep with it under his pillow. He said, however, "If Grotius were himself engaged in war, he would see that the good lessons he inculcates cannot always be practised."
His conduct shows that his mind was deeply impressed with principles of justice and public law, and he never forgot the maxim of Grotius, "that persecution is inconsistent with Christianity." As Tertullian says, "The new law does not assert it rights with the sword", and Plato, "The proper punishment of ignorance is to be taught right."
The Vasas' love of learning had not penetrated the nation very deeply at the time of Christina's accession. They had laid the foundation, and collected the materials; but workmen were wanting to complete the building.
It has been already noticed how much alterations and improvements originated among the rulers in Sweden. Christianity itself was slowly established by the kings against the wish of the people. The Reformation was the work of Gustavus Vasa, — and knowledge, the keenest weapon of democracy, was introduced and fostered by the princes who succeeded him.
A few instances will give an idea of the state of civilization in Sweden when Christina succeeded to the throne. The lower classes were sunk in the deepest ignorance, and many of them still worshipped Odin. The magistrates in general could not write their own names. Medicine was hardly known; the so-called "Doctors" confined their researches to the discovery of the philosopher's stone; if any of them attempted to investigate newer and more useful subjects, they were persecuted as magicians or atheists.
Monnichof, a foreigner in the service of Sweden, said that the Swedes had one King, one religion, and one doctor.
Astrology was in general repute, and the most enlightened theologians believed in compacts with the devil.
The state of manners corresponded with the state of knowledge.
Entertainments were without elegance, the food was coarse, and the drinking excessive. Oaths were constantly used in the best society, and at the Court itself guests threw glasses in each other's faces. Carriages were hardly known. Houses were plain and ugly, the rooms painted white, and badly furnished.
Knowledge and refinement were in an equally low state, and would have long remained so, but for the impulse given to both by Christina.
Above: Gustav Adolf.
Note: The word "Lapp" is a term formerly used to refer to the indigenous Sámi people and is now considered derogatory. Not addressing this would be the same as pretending there's no problem with it.
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